| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Fat No effect | NoneNo effect | 6 people | ||||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 6 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 33 people | |||
| Fat Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 6 people | ||||
| Homocysteine | Improves (the measure goes down) | 33 people | ||||
| Metabolic Rate | Improves (the measure goes up) | 6 people |
Supplement
Fish oil comes from fatty fish and supplies the omega-3 fats EPA and DHA, which help build cell membranes and regulate inflammation. People mostly look at it for heart health, but across more than 140,000 people with cardiovascular disease, studies found no clear difference in deaths from any cause. Atrial fibrillation results after bypass surgery were mixed, from just one trial of about 400 people, so the evidence is limited.
Sources: PMID 28419884
- Updated
- How we grade
- 100 studies cited
- Best evidence
- Grade A
- Conditions studied
- 65
- Outcomes
- 448
- Graded outcomes
- 161432
Evidence by condition
- Strong
- Moderate
- Limited
- Very limited
Bipolar Disorder
- Bipolar Disorder Symptoms: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
Intrauterine Growth Restriction
- Infant Birth Weight: improves
- Pre-Eclampsia Risk: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant Birth Weight Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 2,302 people | |||
| Pre-Eclampsia Risk | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 1,831 people | |||
Studies that measured pre-eclampsia risk | ||||||
Low Birth Weight
- Infant Birth Weight: improves
- Pre-Eclampsia Risk: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant Birth Weight Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 2,302 people | |||
| Pre-Eclampsia Risk | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 1,831 people | |||
Studies that measured pre-eclampsia risk | ||||||
Preeclampsia
- Infant Birth Weight: improves
- Pre-Eclampsia Risk: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant Birth Weight Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 2,302 people | |||
| Pre-Eclampsia Risk | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 1,831 people | |||
Studies that measured pre-eclampsia risk | ||||||
Premature Birth
- Infant Birth Weight: improves
- Pre-Eclampsia Risk: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant Birth Weight Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 2,302 people | |||
| Pre-Eclampsia Risk | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 1,831 people | |||
Studies that measured pre-eclampsia risk | ||||||
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
- Triglycerides: improves
- Weight: improves
Perinatal Depression
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Postpartum Depression Symptoms: improves
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (Chronic Fatigue Syndrome)
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Fatigue Symptoms: improves
Cognitive Improvement
- ADHD Symptoms: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Aggression: improves
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
- Inflammation: improves
- Weight: improves
Mood Improvement
- Aggression: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Anxiety Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aggression Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes up) | Small effect | 2 studies | 305 people | ||
| Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 studies | 385 people | |||
| Anxiety Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 113 people | |||
| Sleep Quality | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 80 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 66 people | |||
| Anger | Improves (the measure goes down) | 272 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 33 people | ||||
| Homocysteine | Improves (the measure goes down) | 33 people | ||||
| Impulsivity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 272 people | ||||
| Negative affect | Improves (the measure goes up) | 272 people | ||||
| Processing Accuracy | Improves (the measure goes up) | 33 people | ||||
| Reaction Time | Improves (the measure goes up) | 33 people |
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
- Atrial Fibrillation Incidence
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Atrial Fibrillation Incidence Mixed effect | 1 study | 401 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 20 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 20 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 84 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 20 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 20 people | |||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 262 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 20 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 20 people |
Menopause
- Anxiety Symptoms: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Follicle-Stimulating Hormone: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety Symptoms Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 355 people | ||
| Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 studies | 475 people | |||
| Follicle-Stimulating Hormone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 27 people | |||
| Sleep Quality | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 355 people | |||
| Hot Flash Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 355 people | ||||
| Stress Signs and Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 120 people |
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
- Anxiety Symptoms: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Fatigue Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety Symptoms Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 95 people | ||
| Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 studies | 95 people | |||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 95 people | ||||
| Insomnia Signs and Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 95 people | ||||
| PMS Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 175 people |
Mental Resilience
- Anxiety Symptoms: improves
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Inflammation: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety Symptoms Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 68 people | ||
| Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 studies | 68 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 68 people |
Skin Health
- Erythema: improves
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers: improves
- Photoprotection: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Erythema Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes up) | Small effect | 1 study | 15 people | ||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 15 people | |||
| Photoprotection | Improves (the measure goes up) | 15 people |
Immune Health
- 5-HEPE: improves
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 5-HEPE Moderate Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 50 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 135 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 135 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 221 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 276 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 61 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 63 people | |||
| Vascular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 25 people | |||
| 5-HETE | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 25 people | |||
| Exercise-Induced Immune Suppression | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 16 people | |||
| Interleukin 2 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 16 people | |||
| Leukotriene B5 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 110 people | |||
| Natural Killer Cell Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 155 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 46 people | |||
| T Cell Count | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 185 people | |||
| B Cell Count | Improves (the measure goes up) | 139 people | ||||
| Leukotriene B4 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 50 people | ||||
| Lymphocyte Count | Improves (the measure goes up) | 25 people | ||||
| Natural Killer Cell Activity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 139 people | ||||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 16 people |
Weight Loss & Maintenance
- 5-HEPE: improves
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 5-HEPE Moderate Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 50 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 93 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 93 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 145 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 93 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 93 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 93 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 93 people | |||
| 5-HETE | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 93 people | |||
| Adiponectin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 93 people | ||||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 93 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 93 people | ||||
| Ketone Bodies | Improves (the measure goes up) | 20 people | ||||
| Leptin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 93 people | ||||
| Leukotriene B4 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 50 people |
Migraine Headache
- Migraine Frequency: improves
- TNF-Alpha: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Migraine Frequency Moderate Decrease | Improves (the measure goes down) | Moderate effect | 38 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 38 people |
Peripartum Depression
- Depression Symptoms: improves
- Postpartum Depression Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression Symptoms Moderate Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Moderate effect | 14 studies | 444 people | ||
| Postpartum Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 327 people |
Muscle Recovery
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Muscle Soreness: improves
- TNF-Alpha: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) No effect | NoneNo effect | 4 studies | 14 people | |||
| Muscle Soreness | Improves (the measure goes down) | 3 studies | 63 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 14 people | |||
| Exercise-Induced Oxidation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 36 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 36 people | |||
| Heart Rate | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 people | ||||
| Muscle Damage | Changes; see studies | 14 people | ||||
| Nitric Oxide | Improves (the measure goes up) | 36 people | ||||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 14 people |
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) No effect | NoneNo effect | 4 studies | 51 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 51 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 51 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 51 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 51 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 51 people |
Lung Cancer
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Inflammation: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) No effect | NoneNo effect | 4 studies | 33 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 33 people |
Peripheral Arterial Disease
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Inflammation: improves
- Platelet Aggregation: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) No effect | NoneNo effect | 4 studies | 150 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 150 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 150 people |
General Cardiovascular Health
- Blood Flow
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 485 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 485 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 65 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 51 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 85 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 33 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 358 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 14 people | |||
| Vascular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 250 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 485 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 65 people | ||||
| Food Intake | Changes; see studies | 65 people | ||||
| Homocysteine | Improves (the measure goes down) | 33 people | ||||
| Plasminogen Inhibitor-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 14 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 30 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 14 people |
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
- Blood Flow
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 60 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 45 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 24 people | |||
| Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 5 studies | 229 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 24 people | |||
| Proteinuria | Improves (the measure goes up) | 21 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 people |
Obesity
- Blood Flow
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 25 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 25 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 25 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 369 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 25 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 324 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 25 people | |||
| Vascular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 25 people | |||
| Offspring BMI | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 63 people | |||
| Ketone Bodies | Improves (the measure goes up) | 20 people | ||||
| Lymphocyte Count | Improves (the measure goes up) | 25 people |
General Athletic Performance
- Anaerobic Capacity
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
- Muscle Soreness: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anaerobic Capacity No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 34 people | |||
| Muscle Soreness | Improves (the measure goes down) | 3 studies | 22 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 34 people | |||
| Oxygen Cost of Exercise | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people | ||||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people | ||||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people |
High Blood Pressure
- Blood Flow
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 20 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 85 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 65 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 475 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 20 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 85 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 20 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 65 people | ||||
| Food Intake | Changes; see studies | 65 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 20 people |
Age Associated Memory Impairment And Cognitive Decline Aamcd
- Cognition
- Cognitive Decline: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognition No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 1,525 people | |||
| Cognitive Decline | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 485 people |
Muscle Size Strength
- Anaerobic Capacity
- Muscle Mass: improves
- Sprint Performance Metrics: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anaerobic Capacity No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 408 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people | ||||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1,229 people |
Type 1 Diabetes
- C-Peptide
- HbA1c: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C-Peptide No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 90 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 90 people |
Anaerobic Exercise Performance
- Anaerobic Capacity
- Sprint Performance Metrics: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anaerobic Capacity No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people |
Infant Health
- Blood Flow
- Triglycerides: improves
- Inflammation: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 50 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 50 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| Vascular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 50 people |
Age-Associated Memory Impairment and Cognitive Decline (AAMCD)
- Cognition
- Cognitive Decline: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognition No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 1,525 people | |||
| Cognitive Decline | Changes; see studies | 2 studies | 485 people |
Muscle Size & Strength
- Anaerobic Capacity
- Muscle Mass: improves
- Sprint Performance Metrics: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anaerobic Capacity No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 408 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people | ||||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1,229 people |
High Cholesterol
- Adiponectin
- Apolipoprotein A
- Triglycerides: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin No effect | NoneNo effect | 147 people | ||||
| Apolipoprotein A No effect | NoneNo effect | 31 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 15,492 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 15,106 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 252 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 93 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 26 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 200 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 153 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 114 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 93 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 91 people | |||
| LDL Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 10 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 14,009 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 158 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 10 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 104 people | ||||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 268 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 153 people | ||||
| Food Intake | Changes; see studies | 65 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 174 people | ||||
| Leptin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 147 people | ||||
| Non-HDL Cholesterol | Changes; see studies | 54 people | ||||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| Resistin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 54 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 16,511 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 134 people | ||||
| Waist circumference | Improves (the measure goes down) | 54 people | ||||
| Waist-Hip Ratio | Improves (the measure goes up) | 54 people |
Type 2 Diabetes
- Adiponectin
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin No effect | NoneNo effect | 54 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 751 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 149 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 131 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 109 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 77 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 202 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 90 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 649 people | |||
| Vascular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 237 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 80 people | |||
| Apolipoprotein A | Improves (the measure goes up) | 50 people | ||||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 63 people | ||||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 660 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 54 people | ||||
| Glucagon | Changes; see studies | 28 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 103 people | ||||
| Homocysteine | Improves (the measure goes down) | 81 people | ||||
| Leptin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 54 people | ||||
| Non-HDL Cholesterol | Changes; see studies | 54 people | ||||
| Plasminogen Inhibitor-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 14 people | ||||
| Resistin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 54 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 723 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 78 people | ||||
| Waist circumference | Improves (the measure goes down) | 54 people | ||||
| Waist-Hip Ratio | Improves (the measure goes up) | 54 people |
Metabolic Health
- Apolipoprotein A
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apolipoprotein A No effect | NoneNo effect | 50 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 364 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 314 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 6 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 252 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 242 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 193 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 458 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 36 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 77 people | |||
| Fat Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Insulin Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 1,132 people | |||
| Interleukin 2 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 77 people | |||
| Leukotriene B5 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 12 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 304 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 50 people | ||||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 193 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 6 people | ||||
| Fructosamine | Changes; see studies | 19 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 143 people | ||||
| Interleukin 1-beta | Improves (the measure goes down) | 77 people | ||||
| Interleukin 5 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 77 people | ||||
| Leukotriene B4 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 12 people | ||||
| Metabolic Rate | Improves (the measure goes up) | 6 people | ||||
| Prostaglandin J2a | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people | ||||
| Thromboxane B2 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 304 people |
Dyslipidemia
- Apolipoprotein A
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apolipoprotein A No effect | NoneNo effect | 81 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 530 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 468 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 167 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 51 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 30 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 62 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 155 people | |||
| Cell Adhesion Factors | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 206 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 30 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 50 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 468 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 101 people | |||
| Platelet Aggregation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 30 people | |||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 81 people | ||||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 62 people | ||||
| DNA Damage | Changes; see studies | 51 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 407 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 31 people |
Cardiovascular Disease
- All-Cause Mortality
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All-Cause Mortality No effect | NoneNo effect | 140,983 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 102 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 102 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 102 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 102 people | |||
| Coronary Artery Disease Risk | Changes; see studies | 2 studies | 144,384 people | |||
| LDL Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 102 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 102 people | |||
| Angina | Improves (the measure goes up) | 42,262 people | ||||
| Apolipoprotein B | Improves (the measure goes down) | 102 people | ||||
| Cardiovascular Disease Mortality | Improves (the measure goes down) | 143,514 people | ||||
| Heart Attack Risk | Changes; see studies | 125,611 people | ||||
| Major Adverse Cardiac Events | Changes; see studies | 135,019 people | ||||
| Stroke Risk | Changes; see studies | 65,404 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 102 people |
Overweight
- Adiponectin
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin No effect | NoneNo effect | 93 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 93 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 158 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 482 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 93 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 93 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 417 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 93 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 65 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 158 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 93 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 65 people | ||||
| Food Intake | Changes; see studies | 65 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 93 people | ||||
| Leptin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 93 people |
Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
- Adiponectin
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin No effect | NoneNo effect | 104 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 475 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 439 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 60 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 321 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 298 people | |||
| Insulin Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 439 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 225 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 145 people | ||||
| Body Mass Index (BMI) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 275 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 60 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 441 people | ||||
| Liver Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 60 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 225 people | ||||
| Uric Acid | Improves (the measure goes down) | 298 people | ||||
| Waist circumference | Improves (the measure goes down) | 292 people |
Aerobic Exercise Performance
- Body Fat
- Oxygen Cost of Exercise: improves
- Oxygen Uptake: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Fat No effect | NoneNo effect | 34 people | ||||
| Oxygen Cost of Exercise | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people |
Body Composition
- Body Fat
- Weight: improves
- Insulin: changes; see studies
Gestational Diabetes
- Blood glucose
- Hematocrit: improves
- Offspring BMI: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood glucose No effect | NoneNo effect | 150 people | ||||
| Hematocrit | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 150 people | |||
| Offspring BMI | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 63 people | |||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 150 people | ||||
| Hemoglobin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 150 people |
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
- Adiponectin
- Triglycerides: improves
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin No effect | NoneNo effect | 51 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 51 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 51 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 51 people | |||
| HbA1c | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 51 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 51 people | ||||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 102 people | ||||
| Leptin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 51 people | ||||
| Serum DHEA | Improves (the measure goes up) | 51 people | ||||
| Sex Hormone Binding Globulin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 51 people | ||||
| Testosterone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 51 people |
Stroke
- Apolipoprotein B
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apolipoprotein B No effect | NoneNo effect | 102 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 102 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 102 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 102 people | |||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 4 studies | 102 people | |||
| LDL Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 102 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 102 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 102 people |
Cardiomyopathy
- Blood glucose
- Triglycerides: improves
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL): improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood glucose No effect | NoneNo effect | 42 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 studies | 42 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 42 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 7 studies | 42 people | |||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 42 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 42 people | |||
| Body Mass Index (BMI) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people | ||||
| Interferon Gamma | Improves (the measure goes up) | 42 people | ||||
| Interleukin 1-beta | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people | ||||
| Interleukin 10 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 42 people | ||||
| Interleukin 4 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 42 people | ||||
| Interleukin 6 | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people | ||||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people | ||||
| Waist circumference | Improves (the measure goes down) | 42 people |
Sleep Health
- Sleep Duration
- Sleep Quality: improves
- Sleep Efficiency: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sleep Duration No effect | NoneNo effect | 413 people | ||||
| Sleep Quality | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 1,261 people | |||
| Sleep Efficiency | Improves (the measure goes up) | 357 people | ||||
| Sleep Latency | Improves (the measure goes down) | 485 people |
Macular Degeneration
- Cognitive Decline: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive Decline | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 3,073 people |
Metabolic Syndrome
- Blood Pressure: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 65 people |
Alzheimer’s Disease
- Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 295 people |
Asthma
- Airway Inflammation Markers: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Airway Inflammation Markers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 16 people |
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
- Autism Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Autism Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 54 people |
Endometriosis
- Endometriosis-associated pelvic pain: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Endometriosis-associated pelvic pain | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 69 people |
Gout
- Gout Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gout Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 40 people |
Cystic Fibrosis
- Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 13 people |
Digestive Health
- Intestinal Permeability: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intestinal Permeability | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 200 people |
Hyperpnoea-Induced Bronchoconstriction (HIB)
- Airway Inflammation Markers: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Airway Inflammation Markers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 16 people |
Raynaud's Phenomenon
- Raynaud's Phenomenon Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Raynaud's Phenomenon Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 32 people |
Schizophrenia
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 71 people |
Alzheimer’s Disease
- Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 295 people |
What the published studies found
8 automated readings
LDL cholesterol
The studies disagree. A Cochrane review (2008, 23 studies, 1,075 people) did not settle it for LDL cholesterol, while 4 of the 8 studies read found a worse result. The evidence is very weak.
Possible harm: 5 studies read reported a worse result for LDL cholesterol with Fish Oil. One abstract says: "Low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol fell by 0.18 and 0.10 mmol/l, respectively, with the safflower-oil and linseed-oil diets, but rose by 0.24 mmol/l with the fish-oil diet (p less than 0.05)." Check the studies below, and ask a doctor or pharmacist if this applies to you.
8 studies counted of 11 read: 4 reviews and 4 trials (131 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2008; 23 studies, 1,075 people; people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
LDL cholesterol levels were raised by 0.11 mmol/L
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for type 2 diabetes mellitus - Meta-analysis, 2026; 10 studies, 633 people; adults with ischemic heart disease: improves. Effect of omega-3 supplementation vs. placebo on blood lipid levels in patients with ischemic heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Meta-analysis, 2007; 6 studies, 313 people; people with intermittent claudication: worsens.
increased (low-density lipoprotein) LDL cholesterol levels
Omega-3 fatty acids for intermittent claudication - Systematic review, 2001; 18 studies, 823 people; people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: worsens.
raising LDL cholesterol by 0.21 mmol/l
Fish oil in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus - Randomised trial, 2013; 57 people; young adults, age 18-30, overweight: no clear difference. A randomized trial of fish oil omega-3 fatty acids on arterial health, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome in a young healthy population
- Crossover trial, 1989; 38 people; middle-aged men with isolated hypercholesterolemia: worsens.
LDL cholesterol was significantly higher (4.5 compared with 4.1 mmol/L, P = 0.01)
Fish oil supplementation does not lower plasma cholesterol in men with hypercholesterolemia. Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study - Crossover trial, 1989; 18 people: unclear: evidence too weak to tell.
Six subjects with LDL cholesterol/apo B ratios below 1.4 showed a trend toward increased LDL …
Heterogeneity of low density lipoprotein responses to fish-oil supplementation in hypertriglyceridemic subjects - Crossover trial, 1988; 18 people: worsens.
raised LDL cholesterol levels (3.7 +/- 1.75 to 4.25 +/- 0.85)
Effects of a low saturated fat, low cholesterol fish oil supplement in hypertriglyceridemic patients. A placebo-controlled trial
- Meta-analysis, 2008; 23 studies, 1,075 people; people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
Cardiovascular events
The studies disagree. A Cochrane review (2020, 86 studies, 162,796 people) found little or no difference in cardiovascular events, while 5 of the 9 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
9 studies counted of 11 read: 6 reviews and 3 trials (11,913 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2020; 86 studies, 162,796 people; adults at varying cardiovascular risk: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
little or no effect of increasing LCn3 on
Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease - Meta-analysis, 2022; 28 studies, 136,965 people; individuals in primary and secondary prevention: improves.
associated with a lower risk of major cardiovascular events
Effects of omega-3 fatty acid on major cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2021; 14 studies, 87,718 people; patients with cardiovascular disease risks: no clear difference.
no apparent difference between the two groups on major adverse cardiovascular effects
Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with cardiovascular disease risks: a dose-response meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2020; 14 studies, 125,763 people; patients receiving omega-3 fatty acid supplementation: improves.
major vascular events (0.78 [0.71-0.85], p < 0.0001
Impact of Different Doses of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Outcomes: a Pairwise and Network Meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2020; 16 studies, 81,073 people: improves.
significant risk reduction of cardiac mortality
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation and cardiovascular outcomes: do formulation, dosage, and baseline cardiovascular risk matter? An updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials - Meta-analysis, 2018; 49 studies, 24,272 people; adults with or without cardiovascular disease: no clear difference.
cardiovascular disease events from 14.6% to 13.0%
Polyunsaturated fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease - Randomised trial, 2026; 1,228 people; adult patients receiving maintenance hemodialysis: improves.
rate of serious cardiovascular events was significantly lower
Fish-Oil Supplementation and Cardiovascular Events in Patients Receiving Hemodialysis - Randomised trial, 2024; 2,506 people; patients with stable coronary artery disease, low EPA/AA ratio: no clear difference.
hazard ratio, 0.79 [95% CI, 0.62-1.00]; P=0.055
Randomized Trial for Evaluation in Secondary Prevention Efficacy of Combination Therapy-Statin and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (RESPECT-EPA) - Randomised trial, 2020; 8,179 people; high-risk ASCVD patients with elevated triglycerides: improves.
reduced significantly incident events across both the trial primary endpoint
Profound reductions in first and total cardiovascular events with icosapent ethyl in the REDUCE-IT trial: why these results usher in a new era in dyslipidaemia therapeutics
- Meta-analysis, 2020; 86 studies, 162,796 people; adults at varying cardiovascular risk: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
Dry eye
The studies disagree. A Cochrane review (2019, 34 studies, 4,314 people) did not settle it for dry eye, while 6 of the 10 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
10 studies counted of 11 read: 6 reviews and 4 trials (1,144 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2019; 34 studies, 4,314 people; adults with dry eye disease: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
little to no reduction in dry eye symptoms
Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids for dry eye disease - Meta-analysis, 2026; 27 studies; patients with dry eye disease: no clear difference.
fail to demonstrate consistent effectiveness for DED
The effects of different forms of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on dry eye disease resulting from various etiologies: a meta-analysis and systematic review - Meta-analysis, 2023; 8 studies, 1,107 people; patients with dry eye disease: improves.
improvement in the mean change in OSDI score
Omega-3 fatty acids in the management of dry eye disease-An updated systematic review and meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2022; 10 studies; patients with dry eye disease or ocular surface conditions: improves.
promising evidence for improved ocular surface staining
Topical Omega-3 Fatty Acids Eyedrops in the Treatment of Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disease: A Systematic Review - Meta-analysis, 2019; 17 studies, 3,363 people; patients with dry eye disease: improves.
supplementation decreased dry eye symptoms [standardized difference
Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation for Treatment of Dry Eye Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials - Systematic review, 2017; 15 studies, 2,591 people; patients with dry eye syndrome: no clear difference.
Tear break-up time (TBUT) significantly increased
Efficacy of nutritional supplementation with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in dry eye syndrome: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials - Randomised trial, 2025; 104 people: improves.
The mean score of dry eye symptoms was significantly lower in omega-3 Group (4.85 ± …
A Randomised Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial of Fish Oil (Omega-3) in Sjögren's Syndrome Patients in Erbil-Iraq - Randomised trial, 2018; 535 people; patients with moderate-to-severe dry eye disease: no clear difference.
mean difference in change after imputation of missing data, -1.9 points
n-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation for the Treatment of Dry Eye Disease - Randomised trial, 2015; 478 people; patients with computer vision syndrome related dry eye: improves.
alleviating dry eye symptoms, decreasing tear evaporation rate
Oral omega-3 fatty acids treatment in computer vision syndrome related dry eye - Randomised trial, 2013; 27 people: improves.
significantly improved after 8-12 weeks of supplementation
Effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil on dry eye syndrome subjects: randomized controlled trial
- Meta-analysis, 2019; 34 studies, 4,314 people; adults with dry eye disease: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
Joint pain
The studies disagree. A Cochrane review (2022, 17 studies, 2,034 people) did not settle it for joint pain, while 4 of the 8 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
8 studies counted of 11 read: 7 reviews and 1 trial (23 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2022; 17 studies, 2,034 people; women with early breast cancer taking aromatase inhibitors: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
evidence is very uncertain about the effect
Systemic therapies for preventing or treating aromatase inhibitor-induced musculoskeletal symptoms in early breast cancer - Meta-analysis, 2024; 23 studies; patients with rheumatoid arthritis: unclear: evidence too weak to tell.
small effect in reducing pain [standardized mean difference (SMD): -0.16
Efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on rheumatoid arthritis' disease activity indicators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials - Meta-analysis, 2023; 9 studies, 2,070 people; patients with osteoarthritis: improves.
significantly relieve the arthritis pain as compared to placebo
Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2017; 18 studies, 1,143 people; patients with rheumatoid arthritis: mixed results.
reduction in patient or physician assessment of pain
Effect of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on arthritic pain: A systematic review - Meta-analysis, 2017; 42 studies: improves. Marine Oil Supplements for Arthritis Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials
- Systematic review, 2012; 23 studies; patients with rheumatoid arthritis: improves.
consistent, but modest, benefit of marine n-3 PUFAs on joint swelling and pain
Influence of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on immune function and a systematic review of their effects on clinical outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis - Meta-analysis, 2007; 17 studies; patients with rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, dysmenorrhea: improves.
reduces patient reported joint pain intensity
A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain - Randomised trial, 2010; 23 people; patients with moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis: no clear difference.
tended to be lower in the omega-3 FA group
omega-3 Fatty acids infusions as adjuvant therapy in rheumatoid arthritis
- Meta-analysis, 2022; 17 studies, 2,034 people; women with early breast cancer taking aromatase inhibitors: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
Memory
The best available review (2020, 29 studies, 4,247 people) found little or no difference in memory. 4 of the 7 studies read agree; 2 found an improvement, 1 found mixed results. The evidence is moderate.
7 studies counted of 8 read: 5 reviews and 2 trials (271 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2020; 29 studies, 4,247 people: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
no main effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation
Omega-3 and its domain-specific effects on cognitive test performance in youths: A meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2020; 10 studies, 2,327 people; elderly individuals with age-related cognitive decline: no clear difference.
minimal or no pooled incremental effects on memory
Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2020; 25 studies; non-demented adults, including mild cognitive impairment: improves.
only memory function showed a mild benefit
Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive decline in non-demented adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2020; 10 studies; mild Cognitive Impairment, Subjective Cognitive Impairment, dementia: mixed results.
presented significant benefits in certain domains of cognitive functions
Dietary interventions and cognition: A systematic review of clinical trials - Meta-analysis, 2015; 24 studies; healthy adults, children, ADHD, related disorders: improves.
In those with low n-3 PUFA status, supplementation improved short-term memory.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis - Randomised trial, 2023; healthy older adults with memory complaints: no clear difference.
did not significantly affect memory function in healthy, non-demented, older individuals
Effects of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Combination with Lutein and Zeaxanthin on Episodic Memory in Healthy Older Adults - Randomised trial, 2020; 271 people; mid-life adults with low LCn-3FA consumption: no clear difference.
did not affect performance in any of the four cognitive domains
The effects of omega-3 fatty acids on neuropsychological functioning and brain morphology in mid-life adults: a randomized clinical trial
- Meta-analysis, 2020; 29 studies, 4,247 people: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
Muscle strength
The studies read do not show a clear benefit for muscle strength. One reading found evidence too weak to tell, a second reading of the same search found mixed results. The strongest review read studied healthy adults without obesity. The evidence is very weak.
7 studies counted of 11 read: 3 reviews and 4 trials (361 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2026; 8 studies; healthy adults without obesity: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
showed no clear evidence of an effect
Omega-3 supplementation shows no clear benefit for fat-free mass or muscle strength in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials - Meta-analysis, 2024; 4 studies: improves.
significantly improved muscle strength compared to the placebo-controlled group
Effects of Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and resistance training on skeletal muscle - Meta-analysis, 2020; 12 studies, 291 people: no clear difference.
no significant differences in isometric muscle strength
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation for Reducing Muscle Soreness after Eccentric Exercise: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials - Randomised trial, 2023; 20 people; healthy older postmenopausal women: improves.
Handgrip strength substantially increased only in RET-FO
Fish Oil Supplementation with Resistance Exercise Training Enhances Physical Function and Cardiometabolic Health in Postmenopausal Women - Randomised trial, 2022; 200 people; older Chinese people: improves.
hand grip strength (interaction time × group effect P < 0.001)
Effects of fish oil-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on body composition, muscle strength and physical performance in older people: a secondary analysis of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial - Randomised trial, 2022; 34 people; sarcopenic older women aged 65 years or older: improves.
significantly greater compared with EP for muscle strength
Randomised Controlled Trial of Fish Oil Supplementation on Responsiveness to Resistance Exercise Training in Sarcopenic Older Women - Randomised trial, 2021; 107 people; older adults at risk of sarcopenia: no clear difference.
Neither LEU-PRO nor LEU-PRO+n-3 supplementation affected appendicular lean mass, handgrip strength
Does supplementation with leucine-enriched protein alone and in combination with fish-oil-derived n-3 PUFA affect muscle mass, strength, physical performance, and muscle protein synthesis in well-nourished older adults? A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
- Meta-analysis, 2026; 8 studies; healthy adults without obesity: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
Respiratory infections
The best available review (2018) found little or no difference in respiratory infections. All 2 studies read agree. The evidence is limited.
2 studies counted of 10 read: 2 reviews.
- Meta-analysis, 2018: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
did not reveal any differences, neither in infections rates
Intravenous fish oil in critically ill and surgical patients - Historical remarks and critical appraisal - Meta-analysis, 2014; 6 studies, 390 people: no clear difference.
no effect on infections (RR, 0.76
Parenteral fish oil lipid emulsions in the critically ill: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Meta-analysis, 2018: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
Stress
The studies disagree. The best available review (2026, 11 studies) found little or no difference in stress, while 2 of the 4 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
4 studies counted of 11 read: 3 reviews and 1 trial (47 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2026; 11 studies; patients with diabetes: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on). Effectiveness of ω-3 Supplementation on Biochemical, Clinical, and Inflammatory Parameters in Patients with Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
- Systematic review, 2026; 9 studies; patients with schizophrenia: improves.
improvements in negative symptoms and stress-related measures
Adjunctive nutritional interventions in schizophrenia: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials - Meta-analysis, 2021; 10 studies, 610 people; women with polycystic ovary syndrome: improves. Efficacy of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hormones, oxidative stress, and inflammatory parameters among polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Randomised trial, 2024; 47 people; healthy male adults: no clear difference.
nor for stress-induced changes in KYN metabolites and mood
No Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation on Kynurenine Pathway, Inflammation, Depressive Symptoms, and Stress Response in Males: A Placebo-Controlled Trial
Key findings
- Depression SymptomsImproves (the measure goes down)
- ADHD SymptomsImproves (the measure goes down)
- Bipolar Disorder SymptomsImproves (the measure goes down)
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Studies cited
100 studies from PubMed
- A comparison of the effects of n-3 fatty acids from linseed oil and fish oil in well-controlled type II diabetes
- Effect of omega 3 fatty acid on plasma lipids, cholesterol and lipoprotein fatty acid content in NIDDM patients
- Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 y
- Metabolic and endocrine effects of long-chain versus essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in polycystic ovary syndrome
- DHA-rich oil modulates the cerebral haemodynamic response to cognitive tasks in healthy young adults: a near IR spectroscopy pilot study
- Effects of a Small Quantity of omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in NIDDM. A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind, Controlled Study
- Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Attenuate Progression of Albuminuria in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Coronary Artery Disease
- Early impact of prescription Omega-3 fatty acids on platelet biomarkers in patients with coronary artery disease and hypertriglyceridemia
- Fish oil supplementation for primary prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: A randomized clinical trial
- Intake of n-3 fatty acids from fish does not lower serum concentrations of C-reactive protein in healthy subjects
- A systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertension
- Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Efficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study
- A controlled study on the effects of n-3 fatty acids on lipid and glucose metabolism in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients
- Effects of adding prescription omega-3 acid ethyl esters to simvastatin (20 mg/day) on lipids and lipoprotein particles in men and women with mixed dyslipidemia
- Effect of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation on Metabolic and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
- Prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters reduce fasting and postprandial triglycerides and modestly reduce pancreatic β-cell response in subjects with primary hypertriglyceridemia
- Additive benefits of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and weight-loss in the management of cardiovascular disease risk in overweight hyperinsulinaemic women
- Effects of prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters on fasting lipid profile in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia
- A comparison of fish oil or corn oil supplements in hyperlipidemic subjects with NIDDM
- The hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in adult-onset diabetes without adverse glucose control
- Effect of fish oil supplementation on serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and LDL subfractions in hypertriglyceridemic adults
- Acute fish oil and soy isoflavone supplementation increase postprandial serum (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids and isoflavones but do not affect triacylglycerols or biomarkers of oxidative stress in overweight and obese hypertriglyceridemic men
- Dose-response effects of omega-3 fatty acids on triglycerides, inflammation, and endothelial function in healthy persons with moderate hypertriglyceridemia
- Combined effects of aerobic exercise and omega-3 fatty acids in hyperlipidemic persons
- The effect of low-dose marine n-3 fatty acids on the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase pathway metabolites in overweight subjects: a randomized controlled trial
- The influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and very low calorie diet during a short-term weight reducing regimen on weight loss and serum fatty acid composition in severely obese women
- Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA does not promote weight loss when combined with a very-low-energy diet
- Moderate consumption of fatty fish reduces diastolic blood pressure in overweight and obese European young adults during energy restriction
- Effects of fish oil supplementation on glucose and lipid metabolism in NIDDM
- Metabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients
- Moderate intake of n-3 fatty acids for 2 months has no detrimental effect on glucose metabolism and could ameliorate the lipid profile in type 2 diabetic men. Results of a controlled study
- Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplements on serum lipids, apolipoproteins and malondialdehyde in type 2 diabetes patients
- Fish oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a quantitative systematic review
- Effect of fish oil concentrate on lipoprotein composition in NIDDM
- Fish oil supplementation improves endothelial function in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes
- Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids reduces triglycerides but increases PAI-1 in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
- Effects of fish oil supplements in NIDDM subjects. Controlled study
- The efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on plasma homocysteine and malondialdehyde levels of type 2 diabetic patients
- Treatment for 2 mo with n 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces adiposity and some atherogenic factors but does not improve insulin sensitivity in women with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled study
- Randomized Controlled Trial of DHA Supplementation during Pregnancy: Child Adiposity Outcomes
- Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation improves vascular function and reduces inflammation in obese adolescents
- Is fish oil supplementation effective on maternal serum FBS, oral glucose tolerance test, hemoglobin and hematocrit in low risk pregnant women? A triple-blind randomized controlled trial
- Effect of 6 Weeks of n-3 fatty-acid supplementation on oxidative stress in Judo athletes
- The effects of ingestion of omega-3 fatty acids on perceived pain and external symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness in untrained men
- The effects of fish oil and isoflavones on delayed onset muscle soreness
- Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on resting and exercise-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: a randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over study
- Dietary fish oil decreases C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and triacylglycerol to HDL-cholesterol ratio in postmenopausal women on HRT
- Supplementation with omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and all-rac alpha-tocopherol alone and in combination failed to exert an anti-inflammatory effect in human volunteers
- Fish oil supplementation alters circulating eicosanoid concentrations in young healthy men
- The effects of low dose n-3 fatty acids on serum lipid profiles and insulin resistance of the elderly: a randomized controlled clinical trial
- Effect of fish oil (n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) on plasma lipids, lipoproteins and inflammatory markers in HIV-infected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study
- Effect of dietary supplementation with increasing doses of docosahexaenoic acid on neutrophil lipid composition and leukotriene production in human healthy volunteers
- No effect of fish oil supplementation on serum inflammatory markers and their interrelationships: a randomized controlled trial in healthy, middle-aged individuals
- Effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients
- Influence of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids on plasma markers of inflammation in middle-aged men
- Influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on soluble cellular adhesion molecules as biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in young healthy subjects
- Effect of dietary fish oil on body fat mass and basal fat oxidation in healthy adults
- The effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids on serum concentrations of C-reactive protein: a dose-response study
- Effects of fish oil on the neuro-endocrine responses to an endotoxin challenge in healthy volunteers
- Blunting the response to endotoxin in healthy subjects: effects of various doses of intravenous fish oil
- Effect of Fish Oil on Insulin Sensitivity in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized, Controlled Trials.
- Omega-3 supplementation on inflammatory markers in patients with chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy: a randomized clinical study
- Fish oil supplementation augments post-exercise immune function in young males
- Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on postprandial triglycerides and monocyte activation
- The effects of eicosapentaenoic acid-fortified food on inflammatory markers in healthy subjects--A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study
- Limited effect of eicosapentaenoic acid on T-lymphocyte and natural killer cell numbers and functions in healthy young males
- The synergistic effects of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin supplementation on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α gene expression and serum level in migraine patients
- Dietary supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid or fish oil decreases T lymphocyte proliferation in healthy older humans
- Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation decreases liver fat content in children with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: double-blind randomised controlled clinical trial
- Efficacy of fish oil supplementation on metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: a meta-analysis.
- DHA-rich Fish Oil Increases the Omega-3 Index and Lowers the Oxygen Cost of Physiologically Stressful Cycling in Trained Individuals
- n-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation During 4 Weeks of Training Leads to Improved Anaerobic Endurance Capacity, but not Maximal Strength, Speed, or Power in Soccer Players
- Age- and dose-dependent effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid-rich oil on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy male subjects
- Moderate doses of EPA and DHA from re-esterified triacylglycerols but not from ethyl-esters lower fasting serum triacylglycerols in statin-treated dyslipidemic subjects: Results from a six month randomized controlled trial
- n-3 LC-PUFA-enriched dairy products are able to reduce cardiovascular risk factors: a double-blind, cross-over study
- The effect of prescription omega-3 fatty acids on body weight after 8 to 16 weeks of treatment for very high triglyceride levels
- The effect of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation on premenstrual syndrome and health-related quality of life: a randomized clinical trial
- Cognitive and physiological effects of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects
- Omega-3 fatty acids (fish-oil) and depression-related cognition in healthy volunteers
- Effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on postpartum depression and information processing
- High-dose eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) improves attention and vigilance in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and low endogenous EPA levels
- Effect of supplementation with long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on behavior and cognition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a randomized placebo-controlled intervention trial
- Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Lutein/Zeaxanthin, or Other Nutrient Supplementation on Cognitive Function: The AREDS2 Randomized Clinical Trial
- Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline
- Effect of long-term omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with or without multidomain intervention on cognitive function in elderly adults with memory complaints (MAPT): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial
- Omega-3 Supplementation and the Neural Correlates of Negative Affect and Impulsivity: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Midlife Adults
- Omega-3 fatty acids for a better mental state in working populations - Happy Nurse Project: A 52-week randomized controlled trial
- Blood profiles, body fat and mood state in healthy subjects on different diets supplemented with Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
- Do long-chain n-3 fatty acids reduce arterial stiffness? A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials
- Effect of low doses of long-chain n-3 PUFAs on endothelial function and arterial stiffness: a randomized controlled trial
- A meta-analysis shows that docosahexaenoic acid from algal oil reduces serum triglycerides and increases HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in persons without coronary heart disease
- Influence of age and dietary fish oil on plasma soluble adhesion molecule concentrations
- Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on C-peptide preservation in pregnant women with type-1 diabetes: randomized placebo controlled clinical trial
- Effects of dietary modification and fish oil supplementation on dyslipoproteinemia in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus
- A randomised interventional trial of omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids on endothelial function and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus
- Beneficial effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus and its relationship to the cytokine network
- Effect of MaxEPA in patients with SLE. A double-blind, crossover study
- The clinical effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fish oils and/or copper in systemic lupus erythematosus
- Fish oil in lupus nephritis: clinical findings and methodological implications