Condition

Infant Health

Infancy is a time of very fast growth, when the brain, bones and immune system are being built, and breast milk or formula supplies most but not all of the nutrients needed. The evidence is strongest for vitamin A, vitamin D and iron, and in large vitamin A studies, diarrhea symptoms improved. Iron research came partly from pregnancy, where one review found birth weight changed without a clear direction, and many other findings are small or limited.

Sources: PMID 37403900

Supplements studied: 13
Graded outcomes: 12
Trials: 11
People studied: 2,121,241

Evidence by supplement

Strong
Moderate
Limited
Very limited

13 supplements

Vitamin A

Vitamin A: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Infant Death Risk Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	6 studies	1,165 people
Studies that measured infant death risk Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short- and long-term morbidity in very low birth weight infants.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 27552058 Vitamin A supplements for preventing mortality, illness, and blindness in children aged under 5: systematic review and meta-analysis.BMJ · PMID 21868478 Vitamin A supplementation for the prevention of morbidity and mortality in infants one to six months of ageCochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 27681486 and 3 more on the Vitamin A page
	Diarrhea Symptoms Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect		37,710 people
	Lung Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	986 people
Studies that measured lung function Oral vitamin A supplementation in preterm infants to improve health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One · PMID 35377893
	Vision problems	Improves (the measure goes up)			22,972 people

Iron

Iron: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Infant Birth Weight Small Increase	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	361 people
Studies that measured infant birth weight Iron supplements in pregnant women with normal iron status: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand · PMID 37403900
	Iron Deficiency Anemia Risk	Changes; see studies			1,670 people
	Iron Deficiency Risk	Changes; see studies			1,663 people

Calcium

Blood Pressure: improves
Pre-Eclampsia Risk: changes; see studies

Calcium: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Blood Pressure Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	3 studies	456 people
Studies that measured blood pressure Calcium, magnesium, and vitamin D supplementations as complementary therapy for hypertensive patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Complement Med Ther · PMID 40045266 Calcium supplementation in nulliparous women for the prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia and preterm birth: an Australian randomized trial. FRACOG and the ACT Study GroupAust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol · PMID 10099740 Calcium supplementation for prevention of primary hypertension.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 35014026
	Pre-Eclampsia Risk	Changes; see studies		4 studies	15,730 people
Studies that measured pre-eclampsia risk World Health Organization randomized trial of calcium supplementation among low calcium intake pregnant womenAm J Obstet Gynecol · PMID 16522392 Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problemsCochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 24960615 Risk factors associated with preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women. The Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) Study GroupAm J Obstet Gynecol · PMID 9396883 and 1 more on the Calcium page

Saffron

Cervix Readiness (Pregnancy): improves
Hemoglobin: improves
Hematocrit: improves

Saffron: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Cervix Readiness (Pregnancy) Moderate Increase	Improves (the measure goes up)	Moderate effect	1 study	50 people
Studies that measured cervix readiness (pregnancy) Effect of Saffron (Fan Hong Hua) On the Readiness of The Uterine Cervix In Term Pregnancy: A Placebo-Controlled Randomized TrialIran Red Crescent Med J · PMID 28180016
	Hemoglobin	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	50 people
Studies that measured hemoglobin Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteersPhytomedicine · PMID 18693099
	Hematocrit	Improves (the measure goes up)			50 people
	Labor Duration (Pregnancy)	Changes; see studies			50 people
	Uterine Contractions Onset	Improves (the measure goes up)			50 people
	Vaginal Delivery Rate	Improves (the measure goes up)			50 people

Lavender

Cortisol: improves
Infant crying: improves

Lavender: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Cortisol Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	30 people
Studies that measured cortisol Lavender bath oil reduces stress and crying and enhances sleep in very young infantsEarly Hum Dev · PMID 18053656
	Infant crying	Improves (the measure goes up)			30 people

Vitamin D

Liver Enzymes: improves
Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk: changes; see studies
Parathyroid Hormone: improves

Vitamin D: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Liver Enzymes Moderate Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect	1 study	230 people
Studies that measured liver enzymes Role of Vitamin D Supplementation in Chronic Liver Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Nutr Rev · PMID 40644459
	Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk	Changes; see studies		13 studies	230 people
Studies that measured upper respiratory tract infection risk The effects of prenatal vitamin D supplementation on respiratory and allergy-related outcomes in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.World Allergy Organ J · PMID 40535465 High-Dose Monthly Vitamin D for Prevention of Acute Respiratory Infection in Older Long-Term Care Residents: A Randomized Clinical TrialJ Am Geriatr Soc · PMID 27861708 Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation and risk of acute respiratory infection in MongoliaPediatrics · PMID 22908115 and 10 more on the Vitamin D page
	Parathyroid Hormone	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	230 people
Studies that measured parathyroid hormone Effect of vitamin D supplementation, directly or via breast milk for term infants, on serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D and related biochemistry, and propensity to infection: a randomised placebo-controlled trialBr J Nutr · PMID 27184759

Prenatal Vitamins

Executive Function: improves
Anemia Risk
Infant Birth Weight: improves

Prenatal Vitamins: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Executive Function Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes up)	Small effect		439,649 people
	Anemia Risk No effect		NoneNo effect		75,051 people
	Infant Birth Weight	Improves (the measure goes down)		2 studies	2,727 people
Studies that measured infant birth weight Effects of vitamin and mineral supplementation during pregnancy on maternal, birth, child health and development outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review.Campbell Syst Rev · PMID 37051178 Effects of prenatal small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements on pregnancy, birth, and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomized controlled trials in low- and middle-income countries.Am J Clin Nutr · PMID 39154665
	Infant Growth	Improves (the measure goes up)			17,257 people
	Iron Deficiency Anemia Risk	Changes; see studies			15,540 people
	Iron Deficiency Risk	Changes; see studies			15,540 people

Fish Oil

Blood Flow
Triglycerides: improves
Inflammation: improves

Fish Oil: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Blood Flow No effect		NoneNo effect	1 study	50 people
Studies that measured blood flow A randomised interventional trial of omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids on endothelial function and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosusAnn Rheum Dis · PMID 17875549
	Triglycerides	Improves (the measure goes down)		24 studies	50 people
Studies that measured triglycerides Effects of a Small Quantity of omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in NIDDM. A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind, Controlled StudyDiabetes Care · PMID 8112187 Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysisInt J Cardiol · PMID 18774613 Efficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyClin Ther · PMID 17825687 and 21 more on the Fish Oil page
	Inflammation	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	50 people
Studies that measured inflammation Effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patientsAnn Nutr Metab · PMID 21757893 Influence of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids on plasma markers of inflammation in middle-aged menProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids · PMID 18403189 Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on postprandial triglycerides and monocyte activationAtherosclerosis · PMID 23017356 and 1 more on the Fish Oil page
	Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		2 studies	50 people
Studies that measured blood pressure A systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertensionEur J Prev Cardiolog · PMID 22345681 Blood pressure decrease with ingestion of a soya product (kinako) or fish oil in women with the metabolic syndrome: role of adiponectin and nitric oxideBr J Nutr · PMID 22313793
	Cell Adhesion Factors	Improves (the measure goes down)		2 studies	50 people
Studies that measured cell adhesion factors Influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on soluble cellular adhesion molecules as biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in young healthy subjectsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis · PMID 18420395 Influence of age and dietary fish oil on plasma soluble adhesion molecule concentrationsClin Sci · PMID 11115423
	Vascular Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	50 people

Zinc

Infant Birth Weight
Iron Absorption: improves
Infant Growth: improves

Zinc: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Infant Birth Weight No effect		NoneNo effect		6,757 people
	Iron Absorption	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	5 people
Studies that measured iron absorption New insights about iron bioavailability inhibition by zincNutrition · PMID 17350802 Elevated intakes of zinc in infant formulas don not interfere with iron absorption in premature infantsJ Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr · PMID 9740203 Zinc inhibits nonheme iron bioavailability in humansBiol Trace Elem Res · PMID 17873388 and 1 more on the Zinc page
	Infant Growth	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	955 people
Studies that measured infant growth Zinc supplementation for the promotion of growth and prevention of infections in infants less than six months of age.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 32266964 Effect of enteral zinc supplementation on growth and neurodevelopment of preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysisJ Perinatol · PMID 34006967
	Preterm Birth Risk	Changes; see studies		1 study	7,637 people
Studies that measured preterm birth risk Zinc supplementation for improving pregnancy and infant outcome.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 33724446

Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)

Cleft lip/palate risk
Neural tube defect risk: improves
Congenital heart defect risk: changes; see studies

Folic Acid (Vitamin B9): outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Cleft lip/palate risk No effect		NoneNo effect		6,708 people
	Neural tube defect risk	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	6,708 people
Studies that measured neural tube defect risk Effects and safety of periconceptional oral folate supplementation for preventing birth defects.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 26662928
	Congenital heart defect risk	Changes; see studies			6,708 people

Fenugreek

Milk Production: improves

Fenugreek: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Milk Production	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	204 people
Studies that measured milk production The Effect of Herbal Tea Containing Fenugreek Seed on the Signs of Breast Milk Sufficiency in Iranian Girl InfantsIran Red Crescent Med J · PMID 26430522 The effect of galactagogue herbal tea on breast milk production and short-term catch-up of birth weight in the first week of lifeJ Altern Complement Med · PMID 21261516

Taurine

Infant Growth: improves

Taurine: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Infant Growth	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	80 people
Studies that measured infant growth Effect of taurine supplementation on growth and development in preterm or low birth weight infants.Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 17943882

Inositol

Retinal Function: improves

Inositol: outcomes studied for Infant Health
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Retinal Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	898 people

Key findings

Infant Death RiskVitamin AImproves (the measure goes down)
Infant Birth WeightIronImproves (the measure goes down)
Diarrhea SymptomsVitamin AImproves (the measure goes down)

The Infant Health (Nutritional Support for Infants) protocol

2 primary supplements · 4 supporting supplements

Vitamin D400 IU daily from birth (AAP recommendation)
Iron1 mg/kg/day for breastfed infants starting at 4 months

See the full protocol

Studies cited

1 study from PubMed

Comparison of Coconut and Sunflower Seed Oils in Improving the Skin Integrity and Weight Gain of Infants in the Neonatal ICU.Adv Skin Wound Care · PMID 39792519

Evidence by supplement

Key findings

The Infant Health (Nutritional Support for Infants) protocol

Studies cited

Related conditions

Supplement stack for Infant Health