| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Flow Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Small effect | 30 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 278 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 91 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 57 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 17 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 107 people | |||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 142 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 10 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 10 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 10 people | |||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 22 people | ||||
| Metabolic Rate | Improves (the measure goes up) | 30 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people |
Supplement
Creatine is a compound your body makes and gets from meat and fish, and muscles store it as phosphocreatine to regenerate ATP, the fuel for quick, powerful efforts. Most people look at it for general athletic performance, where the evidence is strong, and trials found jump height went up and anaerobic capacity improved, though the gains were small. Research on endurance-style exercise was very limited and found no clear difference.
Sources: PMID 14625517; PMID 20543729
- Updated
- How we grade
- 100 studies cited
- Best evidence
- Grade B
- Conditions studied
- 65
- Outcomes
- 433
- Graded outcomes
- 022525
Evidence by condition
- Strong
- Moderate
- Limited
- Very limited
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jump Height Small Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Small effect | 1,937 people | |||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 1,937 people | |||
Studies that measured strength
| ||||||
| Peak power output (PPO) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1,937 people | ||||
Muscle Recovery
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Damage: changes; see studies
Cycling Performance
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Weight: improves
Ice Hockey Performance
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
- Power Output: improves
Colorectal Cancer
- Muscle Mass: improves
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
- Creatinine: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
McArdle Disease
- Exercise Tolerance
- Power Output: improves
- Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms: improves
Fibromyalgia
- Creatinine: improves
- Strength: improves
- Oxygen Uptake: improves
Heart Failure
- Exercise Tolerance
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
Kearns-Sayre Syndrome (KSS)
- Creatinine: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms: improves
Rugby Performance
- Alertness: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Mass: improves
Metabolic Health
- Blood glucose: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
- Swimming Performance Metrics: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood glucose Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 144 people | ||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 74 people | |||
| Swimming Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 40 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 33 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 26 people | |||
| IGF-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 33 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 2 studies | 70 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 18 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 48 people | |||
| Food Intake | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 22 people | |||
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 22 people | |||
| Growth Hormone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 46 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 26 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 18 people | |||
| Testosterone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 99 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 46 people | ||||
| DHT | Improves (the measure goes up) | 20 people | ||||
| Glycogen | Improves (the measure goes up) | 22 people | ||||
| Glycogen Resynthesis | Improves (the measure goes up) | 20 people | ||||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people | ||||
| Insulin Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 108 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 26 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 26 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 26 people |
Type 2 Diabetes
- Glycemic Control: improves
- Kidney Function: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glycemic Control Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes up) | Small effect | 1 study | 25 people | ||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 25 people |
Mitochondrial Myopathy
- Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 4 people | ||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 277 people | |||
| Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 5 studies | 183 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 4 people | |||
| Neuromuscular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 120 people |
Dyslipidemia
- Blood glucose: improves
- Weight: improves
- Creatinine: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood glucose Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 34 people | ||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 34 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 34 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 34 people | |||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 34 people | |||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| vLDL-C | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people |
Martial Arts Performance
- Blood glucose: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Weight: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood glucose Small Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 10 people | ||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 10 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 10 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 10 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 10 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 10 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 10 people | |||
| Blood Lactate (Exercise) | Changes; see studies | 10 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 10 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people |
Soccer Performance
- Uric Acid: improves
- Weight: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uric Acid Small Decrease | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 1 study | 14 people | ||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 14 people |
Traumatic Brain Injury
- Dizziness: improves
- Fatigue Symptoms: improves
- Headaches: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dizziness Moderate Improvement | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 1 study | 35 people | ||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 35 people | ||||
| Headaches | Improves (the measure goes down) | 35 people |
General Athletic Performance
- Aldosterone: improves
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aldosterone Moderate Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 40 people | |||
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 51 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 469 people | |||
| Anaerobic Capacity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 224 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 194 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 293 people | |||
| Swimming Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 42 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 77 people | |||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 58 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 269 people | |||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 142 people | |||
| Muscle Damage | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 469 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 46 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 10 people | |||
| IGF-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 98 people | |||
| Muscular Endurance | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 68 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 63 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 10 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 10 people | |||
| Growth Hormone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Heart Rate | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 56 people | |||
| Satellite Cell Recruitment | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 32 people | |||
| Skeletal Muscle Atrophy | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 7 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Testosterone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 30 people | ||||
| Blood Lactate (Exercise) | Changes; see studies | 46 people | ||||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 55 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 83 people | ||||
| COPD Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 46 people | ||||
| Exercise-Induced Oxidation | Changes; see studies | 469 people | ||||
| Fat Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 20 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 119 people | ||||
| Glycogen | Improves (the measure goes up) | 12 people | ||||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 469 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 10 people | ||||
| Lung Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 23 people | ||||
| Metabolic Rate | Improves (the measure goes up) | 30 people | ||||
| Muscle Oxygenation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people | ||||
| Muscle Soreness | Improves (the measure goes down) | 469 people | ||||
| Myonuclei Proliferation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 32 people | ||||
| Myostatin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 27 people | ||||
| Proteinuria | Improves (the measure goes up) | 38 people | ||||
| Range of Motion | Improves (the measure goes up) | 40 people | ||||
| Triglycerides | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 10 people |
Body Composition
- Blood Flow: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
Warm Or Hot Weather Exercise Performance
- Aldosterone: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aldosterone Moderate Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 40 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 20 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 21 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 20 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 221 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 20 people | |||
| Heart Rate | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 44 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 21 people |
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- Body Fat: improves
- Weight: improves
- Exercise Tolerance: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Fat Small Decrease | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 25 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 105 people | |||
| Exercise Tolerance | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 151 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 105 people | |||
| COPD Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 256 people | ||||
| Lung Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 23 people |
Weight Loss & Maintenance
- Body Fat: improves
- Muscle Mass: improves
- Myostatin: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Fat Small Decrease | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 19 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 46 people | |||
| Myostatin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 27 people |
Osteoarthritis (OA)
- Body Fat: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Mass: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Fat Small Decrease | Improves (the measure goes down) | Small effect | 24 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 24 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 24 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 24 people | |||
| Osteoarthritis Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 24 people |
Proximal Myotonic Myopathy
- Fatigue Symptoms: improves
- Power Output: improves
- Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fatigue Symptoms Moderate Improvement | Improves (the measure goes down) | Moderate effect | 20 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 20 people | |||
| Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 5 studies | 20 people |
Warm- or Hot-Weather Exercise Performance
- Aldosterone: improves
- Blood Pressure
- Power Output: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aldosterone Moderate Increase | Improves (the measure goes up) | Moderate effect | 20 people | |||
| Blood Pressure No effect | NoneNo effect | 44 people | ||||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 20 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 21 people | |||
| Weight | Changes; see studies | 10 studies | 20 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 221 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 20 people | |||
| Heart Rate | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Fatigue Resistance | Changes; see studies | 21 people |
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms
- Power Output: improves
- Weight: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms No effect | NoneNo effect | 6 studies | 386 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 135 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 113 people | |||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 175 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 85 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 107 people | |||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 107 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 175 people | ||||
| Lung Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 337 people |
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
- Kidney Function
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kidney Function No effect | NoneNo effect | 5 studies | 20 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 20 people |
Parkinson's Disease
- Parkinson's Disease Symptoms
- Power Output: improves
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parkinson's Disease Symptoms No effect | NoneNo effect | 4 studies | 194 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 20 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 60 people |
Muscle Size Strength
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 18 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 469 people | |||
| Anaerobic Capacity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 90 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 164 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 144 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 57 people | |||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 38 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 399 people | |||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 142 people | |||
| Muscle Damage | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 469 people | |||
| IGF-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 98 people | |||
| Muscular Endurance | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 42 people | |||
| Growth Hormone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 6 people | |||
| Satellite Cell Recruitment | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 32 people | |||
| Skeletal Muscle Atrophy | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 7 people | |||
| Testosterone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 50 people | |||
| Blood Flow | Improves (the measure goes up) | 30 people | ||||
| Blood Pressure | Improves (the measure goes down) | 35 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 215 people | ||||
| Exercise-Induced Oxidation | Changes; see studies | 469 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 78 people | ||||
| Glycogen | Improves (the measure goes up) | 12 people | ||||
| Inflammation | Improves (the measure goes down) | 469 people | ||||
| Jump Height | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1,937 people | ||||
| Metabolic Rate | Improves (the measure goes up) | 30 people | ||||
| Muscle Soreness | Improves (the measure goes down) | 469 people | ||||
| Myonuclei Proliferation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 32 people | ||||
| Myostatin | Improves (the measure goes up) | 27 people | ||||
| Peak power output (PPO) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1,937 people | ||||
| Proteinuria | Improves (the measure goes up) | 38 people | ||||
| Range of Motion | Improves (the measure goes up) | 40 people |
Swimming Performance
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 26 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 112 people | |||
| Anaerobic Capacity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 70 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 60 people | |||
| Swimming Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 357 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 18 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 62 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 34 people | |||
| IGF-1 | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 26 people | |||
| Growth Hormone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 46 people | |||
| Heart Rate | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 16 people | |||
| Testosterone | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 20 people | |||
| Blood Lactate (Exercise) | Changes; see studies | 54 people | ||||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 46 people | ||||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 20 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 38 people | ||||
| Training Volume | Improves (the measure goes up) | 58 people |
Running Performance
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 55 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 49 people | |||
| Anaerobic Capacity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 135 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 121 people | |||
| Swimming Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 studies | 20 people | |||
| Hydration (Total Body Water) | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 10 people | |||
| Muscle Damage | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 84 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 25 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 55 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 25 people | |||
| Anti-Oxidant Enzyme Profile | Improves (the measure goes up) | 25 people | ||||
| Blood Lactate (Exercise) | Changes; see studies | 45 people | ||||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 55 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people | ||||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people |
Healthy Muscle Aging
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Mass: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 16 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 72 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 30 people | |||
| Strength | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 1,093 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 1,093 people | |||
| Functionality in Elderly or Injured | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 16 people | |||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1,093 people | ||||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 15 people |
Aerobic Exercise Performance
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Weight: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 106 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 18 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 73 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 55 people | |||
| Fatigue Resistance | Improves (the measure goes down) | 55 people |
General Cardiovascular Health
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Weight: improves
- Insulin: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 18 people | |||
| Weight | Improves (the measure goes down) | 10 studies | 18 people | |||
| Insulin | Changes; see studies | 2 studies | 28 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 18 people | |||
| Total cholesterol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 22 people | |||
| Blood glucose | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 14 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 18 people |
Bone Health
- Bone Mineral Density
- Muscle Mass: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bone Mineral Density No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 29 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 29 people |
Mitochondrial Cytopathy
- Aerobic Exercise Metrics
- Power Output: improves
- Oxygen Uptake: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aerobic Exercise Metrics No effect | NoneNo effect | 2 studies | 7 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 7 people | |||
| Oxygen Uptake | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 7 people | |||
| Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 7 people | |||
| Fat Oxidation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 7 people |
Kidney Health
- Bilirubin
- Kidney Function: improves
- Creatinine: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 23 people | |||
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 44 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 23 people | |||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 23 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 23 people |
Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1
- Bilirubin
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 34 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 277 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 34 people | |||
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 34 people | |||
| Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 5 studies | 183 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 34 people | |||
| Bone Mineral Density | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 34 people | |||
| Body Fat | Improves (the measure goes down) | 34 people | ||||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 34 people | ||||
| Lung Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 34 people | ||||
| Neuromuscular Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 120 people |
Cystic Fibrosis
- Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 11 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 11 people |
Football Performance
- Bilirubin
- Creatinine: improves
- Urea: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 23 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 23 people | |||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 23 people |
General Liver Health
- Bilirubin
- Creatinine: improves
- Liver Enzymes: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 23 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 23 people | |||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 23 people | ||||
| Urea | Improves (the measure goes up) | 23 people |
Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)
- Attention
- Cognition: improves
- Memory: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attention No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 211 people | |||
| Cognition | Improves (the measure goes up) | 4 studies | 280 people | |||
| Memory | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 492 people | |||
| Executive Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 104 people | ||||
| Processing Speed | Improves (the measure goes up) | 104 people |
Surgical Recovery
- Bilirubin
- Power Output: improves
- Muscle Creatine Content: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin No effect | NoneNo effect | 1 study | 37 people | |||
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 37 people | |||
| Muscle Creatine Content | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 37 people | |||
| Functionality in Elderly or Injured | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 37 people | |||
| Liver Enzymes | Changes; see studies | 37 people |
Cognitive Improvement
- Adrenaline
- Cognition: improves
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adrenaline No effect | NoneNo effect | 19 people | ||||
| Cognition | Improves (the measure goes up) | 4 studies | 280 people | |||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 39 people | |||
| Alertness | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 12 people | |||
| Attention | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 211 people | |||
| Memory | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 492 people | |||
| Cerebral Oxygenation | Improves (the measure goes up) | 24 people | ||||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 39 people | ||||
| Dopamine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Executive Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 104 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 43 people | ||||
| Noradrenaline | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Processing Speed | Improves (the measure goes up) | 104 people | ||||
| Sleep Deprivation Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 39 people |
Sleep Health
- Adrenaline
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
- Attention: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adrenaline No effect | NoneNo effect | 19 people | ||||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 39 people | |||
| Attention | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 19 people | |||
| Memory | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 39 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 39 people | ||||
| Dopamine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 19 people | ||||
| Noradrenaline | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Sleep Deprivation Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 39 people |
Immune Health
- Anti-Oxidant Enzyme Profile
- Muscle Damage: changes; see studies
- Creatinine: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anti-Oxidant Enzyme Profile No effect | NoneNo effect | 25 people | ||||
| Muscle Damage | Changes; see studies | 4 studies | 50 people | |||
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 25 people | |||
| Oxidative Stress Biomarkers | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 25 people | |||
| C-Reactive Protein (CRP) | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people | ||||
| TNF-Alpha | Improves (the measure goes down) | 25 people |
Mood Improvement
- Adrenaline
- Subjective Well-Being: improves
- Attention: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adrenaline No effect | NoneNo effect | 19 people | ||||
| Subjective Well-Being | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 19 people | |||
| Attention | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 19 people | |||
| Memory | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 19 people | |||
| Cortisol | Improves (the measure goes down) | 19 people | ||||
| Dopamine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Fatigue Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 19 people | ||||
| Noradrenaline | Improves (the measure goes up) | 19 people | ||||
| Sleep Deprivation Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 19 people |
Jumping Performance
- Power Output: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 60 people |
Volleyball Performance
- Power Output: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Power Output | Improves (the measure goes up) | 44 studies | 12 people |
Wheelchair Athletic Performance
- Anaerobic Capacity: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anaerobic Capacity | Improves (the measure goes up) | 11 studies | 6 people |
Menopause
- Kidney Function: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 26 people |
Prostate Cancer
- Muscle Mass: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muscle Mass | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 30 people |
End-Stage Renal Disease
- Kidney Function: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kidney Function | Improves (the measure goes up) | 5 studies | 45 people |
Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia (CPEO)
- Creatinine: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Creatinine | Improves (the measure goes up) | 3 studies | 15 people |
Depression
- Depression Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 60 people |
Huntington's Disease
- Huntington's Disease Symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Huntington's Disease Symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 2 studies | 61 people |
Softball Performance
- Muscular Endurance: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muscular Endurance | Improves (the measure goes up) | 2 studies | 26 people |
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
- Homocysteine: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Homocysteine | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 19 people |
High Cholesterol
- Glycemic Control: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glycemic Control | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 25 people |
Memory Improvement
- Memory: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Memory | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 847 people |
Rett Syndrome (RTT)
- DNA methylation: changes; see studies
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DNA methylation | Changes; see studies | 1 study | 18 people |
Schizophrenia
- Schizophrenia symptoms: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Schizophrenia symptoms | Improves (the measure goes down) | 1 study | 12 people |
Tennis Performance
- Sprint Performance Metrics: improves
| Grade | Outcome | Effect | Size | Studies | People | Studies list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sprint Performance Metrics | Improves (the measure goes up) | 1 study | 36 people |
What the published studies found
9 automated readings
LDL cholesterol
The best available review (2026, 8 studies) found little or no difference in LDL cholesterol. The evidence is limited.
1 study counted of 9 read: 1 review.
- Systematic review, 2026; 8 studies: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on). Does creatine affect lipid profile? a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials
Cardiovascular events
The studies read are too weak to tell whether Creatine changes cardiovascular events. The strongest review read studied adults with heart failure, ischemic heart disease, or myocardial infarction. The evidence is very weak.
1 study counted of 10 read: 1 review.
- Meta-analysis, 2011; 11 studies, 1,474 people; adults with heart failure, ischemic heart disease, or myocardial infarction: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
no significant effect of creatine or creatine analogues
Creatine and creatine analogues in hypertension and cardiovascular disease
- Meta-analysis, 2011; 11 studies, 1,474 people; adults with heart failure, ischemic heart disease, or myocardial infarction: unclear: evidence too weak to tell (the review the verdict rests on).
Cognitive function
The studies disagree. The best available review (2024, 16 studies, 492 people) found little or no difference in cognitive function, while 6 of the 10 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
10 studies counted of 11 read: 4 reviews and 6 trials (233 people in the trials).
- Systematic review, 2024; 16 studies, 492 people; adults aged 20.8-76.4 years, healthy and diseased: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
no significant improvements were found on overall cognitive function
The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2025; 7 studies, 275 people; individuals with bipolar disorder: improves. Lifestyle-based interventions targeting neurocognition in bipolar disorders - a systematic review of randomized controlled trials
- Systematic review, 2024; vegans, vegetarians, elderly, sleep deprived, hypoxic individuals: unclear: evidence too weak to tell.
demonstrated somewhat equivocal results for effects on cognition
Creatine supplementation research fails to support the theoretical basis for an effect on cognition: Evidence from a systematic review - Meta-analysis, 2023; 8 studies; healthy individuals: improves.
creatine supplementation improved measures of memory compared with placebo
Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials - Randomised trial, 2026; 40 people; young healthy active omnivorous males and females: no clear difference.
no effects of Cr on any of the cognitive tasks
Creatine monohydrate improved cycling Wingate performance but not cognitive function in young active males and females - Randomised trial, 2026; 36 people; perimenopausal and menopausal women: improves.
superior to placebo in enhancing reaction time
The Effects of 8-Week Creatine Hydrochloride and Creatine Ethyl Ester Supplementation on Cognition, Clinical Outcomes, and Brain Creatine Levels in Perimenopausal and Menopausal Women (CONCRET-MENOPA): A Randomized Controlled Trial - Crossover trial, 2025; 14 people; physically active men: improves.
improved cognitive performance on the DCT
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Loading on Sleep Metrics, Physical Performance, Cognitive Function, and Recovery in Physically Active Men: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial - Crossover trial, 2015; 15 people; healthy young adults: improves.
decrements in cognitive performance, specifically attentional capacity, were restored
Creatine supplementation enhances corticomotor excitability and cognitive performance during oxygen deprivation - Randomised trial, 2011; 128 people; young adult females: mixed results.
creatine supplementation resulted in better memory
The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores - Randomised trial, 2009: improves.
improvement over the placebo condition on several measures
Cognitive effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation
- Systematic review, 2024; 16 studies, 492 people; adults aged 20.8-76.4 years, healthy and diseased: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
Endurance performance
The studies disagree. A Cochrane review (2014, 13 studies, 85 people) found little or no difference in endurance performance, while 2 of the 8 studies read found an improvement. The evidence is very weak.
Possible harm: 1 study read reported a worse result for endurance performance with Creatine. One abstract says: "VO2max increased in both groups but increased less after creatine supplementation than placebo (effect size [ES] = -0.32, 95%CI = -0.51 to -0.12, p = 0.002)." Check the studies below, and ask a doctor or pharmacist if this applies to you.
8 studies counted of 11 read: 6 reviews and 2 trials (30 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2014; 13 studies, 85 people: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
There was no benefit with: D-ribose,glucagon, verapamil, vitamin B6, branched chain amino acids, dantrolene sodium, …
Pharmacological and nutritional treatment for McArdle disease (Glycogen Storage Disease type V) - Systematic review, 2025; 19 studies; combat sport athletes: no clear difference.
did not influence measures of sport-specific endurance
Creatine Supplementation in Combat Sport Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review - Meta-analysis, 2023; 19 studies, 424 people; young healthy adults, mostly men: worsens.
increased less after creatine supplementation than placebo
Creatine supplementation and VO2max: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2023; 13 studies; trained population: no clear difference.
non-significant change in endurance performance after creatine monohydrate supplementation
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate on Endurance Performance in a Trained Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2023; 10 studies; people across different age groups: improves.
taking Cr supplements demonstrated statistically significant benefits over PLA
Effectiveness of Creatine in Metabolic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - Systematic review, 2004; 10 studies: improves.
statistically significant benefit, albeit modest, in ischaemic exercise
Pharmacological and nutritional treatment for McArdle's disease (Glycogen Storage Disease type V) - Crossover trial, 2005; 8 people; persons with chronic tetraplegia and weak muscles: no clear difference.
no significant differences in MVC, endurance times
Creatine supplementation for weak muscles in persons with chronic tetraplegia: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial - Randomised trial, 2001; 22 people; twenty-two rowers: no clear difference.
did not increase performance or training volume over a placebo condition
Effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation during combined strength and high intensity rowing training on performance
- Meta-analysis, 2014; 13 studies, 85 people: no clear difference (the review the verdict rests on).
Memory
The best available review (2024, 16 studies, 492 people) found a small improvement in memory. That review studied adults aged 20.8-76.4 years, healthy and diseased. 5 of the 6 studies read agree; 1 found no clear difference. The evidence is moderate.
6 studies counted of 9 read: 3 reviews and 2 trials (150 people in the trials).
- Systematic review, 2024; 16 studies, 492 people; adults aged 20.8-76.4 years, healthy and diseased: improves (the review the verdict rests on).
significant positive effects on memory (SMD = 0.31
The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2023; 8 studies; healthy individuals: improves.
creatine supplementation improved measures of memory
Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials - Systematic review, 2018; 6 studies, 281 people; healthy individuals: improves.
short term memory and intelligence/reasoning may be improved
Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials - Study, 2025; older adults: improves.
modest improvements in memory, processing speed
Creatine supplementation and exercise in aging: a narrative review of the muscle-brain axis and its impact on cognitive and physical health - Randomised trial, 2011; 128 people; young adult females, vegetarians and omnivores: improves.
creatine supplementation resulted in better memory
The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores - Randomised trial, 2008; 22 people; non-sleep deprived young adults: no clear difference.
no significant group by time interactions for RT, CS, CSD, LRS, MP, RM, and MR
Creatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adults
- Systematic review, 2024; 16 studies, 492 people; adults aged 20.8-76.4 years, healthy and diseased: improves (the review the verdict rests on).
Muscle mass
Mixed or unclear: two readings of the studies disagreed. One reading found an improvement for muscle mass, the other mixed results. The question is open.
8 studies counted of 10 read: 7 reviews and 1 trial (15 people in the trials).
- Meta-analysis, 2007; 12 studies, 266 people; people with hereditary muscle disease: mixed results (the review the verdict rests on).
increase in lean body mass during creatine treatment
Creatine for treating muscle disorders - Meta-analysis, 2026; 7 studies, 608 people; postmenopausal women: improves.
Lean mass (k = 5; n = 338) favored creatine: mean difference (MD) + 0.37 …
Creatine monohydrate for lean mass, strength, and bone density in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2025; 19 studies; combat sport athletes: improves.
increased measures of body mass and fat-free mass
Creatine Supplementation in Combat Sport Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review - Meta-analysis, 2025; 61 studies; novice and experienced lifters: improves.
significantly increased FFM (weighted mean difference [WMD]: 1.39 kg
Creatine supplementation and resistance training: a comparison between novice and experienced lifters - a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2024; 33 studies, 1,076 people; older adults and adults with chronic disease: improves.
lean tissue mass (MD 1.08 kg; 95% CI: 0.77-1.38
Creatine supplementation for optimization of physical function in the patient at risk of functional disability: A systematic review and meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2023; 10 studies; healthy adults: no clear difference.
pooled mean estimate of 0.11 (95% Credible Interval (CrI): -0.02 to 0.25)
The Effects of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Regional Measures of Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis - Meta-analysis, 2021; older adults undergoing resistance training: improves.
augments lean tissue mass and strength increase
Meta-Analysis Examining the Importance of Creatine Ingestion Strategies on Lean Tissue Mass and Strength in Older Adults - Randomised trial, 2025; 15 people; healthy vegans and vegetarians: improves.
FFM (1.15 ± 0.94 kg, p < 0.05)
Muscle creatine levels and sprint performance in young adult vegans and vegetarians after 7 days of creatine monohydrate supplementation
- Meta-analysis, 2007; 12 studies, 266 people; people with hereditary muscle disease: mixed results (the review the verdict rests on).
Muscle strength
A Cochrane review (2013, 14 studies, 364 people) found an improvement in muscle strength. That review studied people with hereditary or acquired muscle diseases. 5 of the 9 studies read agree; 4 found no clear difference. The evidence is strong.
9 studies counted of 10 read: 9 reviews.
- Meta-analysis, 2013; 14 studies, 364 people; people with hereditary or acquired muscle diseases: improves (the review the verdict rests on).
significant increase in muscle strength in the creatine group
Creatine for treating muscle disorders - Systematic review, 2026; 11 studies; older adults aged 60 years and older: improves.
significantly improved muscle strength compared with resistance training alone
Effects of resistance training combined with creatine supplementation on muscle strength, physical function, and muscle mass in older adults: a systematic review and three-level meta-analysis - Meta-analysis, 2025; 69 studies, 1,937 people: improves.
improvements in bench and chest press strength [WMD = 1.43 kg, p = 0.002]
The Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Upper- and Lower-Body Strength and Power: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - Meta-analysis, 2025; general population: improves.
Cr group exhibited significant strength gains
Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle strength gains-a meta-analysis and systematic review - Meta-analysis, 2024; 23 studies, 512 people; adults under 50 years of age: improves.
significantly increased upper-body (WMD = 4.43 kg
Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength Gains in Adults <50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - Meta-analysis, 2021; 13 studies, 278 people; adults undergoing exercise-induced muscle damage: no clear difference.
Creatine supplementation did not alter muscle strength, muscle soreness, range of motion, or inflammation at …
The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention Trials - Meta-analysis, 2012; 12 studies, 38 people; people with confirmed mitochondrial disease: no clear difference.
one reporting evidence of improved measures of muscle strength
Treatment for mitochondrial disorders - Meta-analysis, 2010; 4 studies, 151 people; patients with COPD receiving pulmonary rehabilitation: no clear difference.
did not improve lower extremity muscle strength
Creatine supplementation for patients with COPD receiving pulmonary rehabilitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis - Systematic review, 2004; 2 studies; adults with facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy: no clear difference.
non-significant difference in favour of creatine
Drug treatment for facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy
- Meta-analysis, 2013; 14 studies, 364 people; people with hereditary or acquired muscle diseases: improves (the review the verdict rests on).
Sleep quality
The studies read are too weak to tell whether Creatine changes sleep quality. The evidence is very weak.
5 studies counted of 9 read: 4 trials (93 people in the trials).
- Crossover trial, 2026; 58 people; healthy and active adults: mixed results.
Some positive and potentially undesirable effects were observed in sleep quality assessments
Effects of six weeks of guanidinoacetic acid supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate on cognitive function and markers of health in healthy adults - Study, 2026; tactical populations (e.g. military, law enforcement): improves. The emerging and evolving evidence supporting creatine as an ergogenic aid: history and applications
- Crossover trial, 2025; 14 people; physically active men: improves.
CrM improved sleep quality compared to PL
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Loading on Sleep Metrics, Physical Performance, Cognitive Function, and Recovery in Physically Active Men: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial - Randomised trial, 2024; 21 people; naturally menstruating females: no clear difference. Creatine Improves Total Sleep Duration Following Resistance Training Days versus Non-Resistance Training Days among Naturally Menstruating Females
- Randomised trial, 2013: no clear difference.
no general changes were observed in
Creatine supplementation in fibromyalgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
- Crossover trial, 2026; 58 people; healthy and active adults: mixed results.
Stress
Mixed or unclear: two readings of the studies disagreed. One reading found little or no difference for stress, the other an improvement. The question is open.
1 study counted of 9 read: 1 trial (103 people in the trials).
- Randomised trial, 2026; 103 people; community-dwelling older adults: improves.
Creatine alone reduced F2-iso and TNF-α
Effects of high-load, velocity-intentional variable resistance training combined with creatine supplementation on neuroplasticity, oxidative stress, inflammation, physical function, cognitive performance and quality of life in older adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
- Randomised trial, 2026; 103 people; community-dwelling older adults: improves.
Key findings
- Anaerobic CapacityImproves (the measure goes up)
- Jump HeightImproves (the measure goes up)
- Muscle MassImproves (the measure goes up)
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Studies cited
100 studies from PubMed
- Does creatine supplementation improve glycemic control and insulin resistance in healthy and diabetic patients? A systematic review and meta-analysis.
- Role of creatine supplementation on exercise-induced cardiovascular function and oxidative stress
- Three weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation affects dihydrotestosterone to testosterone ratio in college-aged rugby players
- Does creatine supplementation improve the plasma lipid profile in healthy male subjects undergoing aerobic training
- Effects of creatine supplementation on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in sedentary healthy males undergoing aerobic training
- Creatine supplementation increases glycogen storage but not GLUT-4 expression in human skeletal muscle
- Creatine supplementation affects glucose homeostasis but not insulin secretion in humans
- Creatine supplementation and health variables: a retrospective study
- Effect of oral creatine supplementation on human muscle GLUT4 protein content after immobilization
- Role of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscle
- Effect of creatine monohydrate in improving cellular energetics and muscle strength in ambulatory Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients: a randomized, placebo-controlled 31P MRS study
- Creatine for treating muscle disorders.
- Creatine monohydrate enhances strength and body composition in Duchenne muscular dystrophy
- Comparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flow
- Creatine, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, amino acids, and medium-chain triglycerides and endurance and performance
- The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levels
- Effect of in-season creatine supplementation on body composition and performance in rugby union football players
- Creatine fails to augment the benefits from resistance training in patients with HIV infection: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study
- Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians
- Effects of creatine supplementation in taekwondo practitioners
- Creatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older women
- The effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation with and without D-pinitol on resistance training adaptations
- Effects of creatine on body composition and strength gains after 4 weeks of resistance training in previously nonresistance-trained humans
- Creatine monohydrate supplementation on body weight and percent body fat
- Reliability and detecting change following short-term creatine supplementation: comparison of two-component body composition methods
- Low-dose creatine supplementation enhances fatigue resistance in the absence of weight gain
- Efficacy of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass in Older Females: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
- The Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
- Creatine supplementation and physical training in patients with COPD: a double blind, placebo-controlled study
- Creatine monohydrate increases strength in patients with neuromuscular disease
- Effect of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and females
- Does nutritional supplementation influence adaptability of muscle to resistance training in men aged 48 to 72 years
- Effects of four weeks of high-intensity interval training and creatine supplementation on critical power and anaerobic working capacity in college-aged men
- Effect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletes
- Effect of short-term creatine supplementation on neuromuscular function
- The effects of polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength and power
- Effect of thirty days of creatine supplementation with phosphate salts on anaerobic working capacity and body weight in men
- The effects of supplementation with creatine and protein on muscle strength following a traditional resistance training program in middle-aged and older men
- The effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strength
- Effect of different frequencies of creatine supplementation on muscle size and strength in young adults
- Effects of creatine monohydrate and polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength, endurance, and power output
- The effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreaching
- Creatine as a metabolic controller of skeletal muscles structure and function in strength exercises in humans
- Effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on body composition and strength indices in experienced resistance trained women
- Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on serum myostatin and GASP-1
- Effects of two and five days of creatine loading on muscular strength and anaerobic power in trained athletes
- Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers
- The effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: a randomized controlled trial
- Effect of caffeine ingestion after creatine supplementation on intermittent high-intensity sprint performance
- Effects of creatine supplementation and three days of resistance training on muscle strength, power output, and neuromuscular function
- Mg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performance
- Physiological responses to short-term exercise in the heat after creatine loading
- Skeletal muscle total creatine content and creatine transporter gene expression in vegetarians prior to and following creatine supplementation
- Muscle glycogen supercompensation is enhanced by prior creatine supplementation
- Effect of creatine on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle in swimmers
- Parallel increases in phosphocreatine and total creatine in human vastus lateralis muscle during creatine supplementation
- Creatine supplementation reduces muscle inosine monophosphate during endurance exercise in humans
- Effects of creatine loading and prolonged creatine supplementation on body composition, fuel selection, sprint and endurance performance in humans
- Effects of creatine supplementation on aerobic power and cardiovascular structure and function
- Effect of two and five days of creatine loading on anaerobic working capacity in women
- Effect of creatine phosphate supplementation on anaerobic working capacity and body weight after two and six days of loading in men and women
- Effects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold in cycle ergometry in college-age men
- Effects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold during cycle ergometry in college-aged women
- Effect of low-dose, short-duration creatine supplementation on anaerobic exercise performance
- Short-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation or sprint performance in humans
- Creatine supplementation: effects on urinary excretion and anaerobic performance
- Effects of creatine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue threshold and muscle strength in elderly men and women (64 - 86 years)
- The effect and safety of short-term creatine supplementation on performance of push-ups
- Effects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball players
- The effect of creatine supplementation on muscle fatigue and physiological indices following intermittent swimming bouts
- Creatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength training
- Creatine supplementation does not enhance submaximal aerobic training adaptations in healthy young men and women
- Effect of creatine supplementation and resistance-exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adults
- Increased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementation
- Effect of creatine supplementation during cast-induced immobilization on the preservation of muscle mass, strength, and endurance
- Creatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individuals
- The effect of short-term creatine loading on active range of movement
- Acute creatine loading enhances human growth hormone secretion
- Creatine Supplementation and Lower Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
- Creatine Supplementation and Upper Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
- The Effects of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Regional Measures of Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.
- The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Resistance Training-Based Changes to Body Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
- Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength Gains in Adults <50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
- The Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Upper- and Lower-Body Strength and Power: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
- Effects of creatine supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers after repeated-sprint exercise in humans
- The effect of creatine supplementation upon inflammatory and muscle soreness markers after a 30km race
- Creatine supplementation and performance in 6 consecutive 60 meter sprints
- The effects of creatine loading and gender on anaerobic running capacity
- The effects of acute creatine supplementation on multiple sprint cycling and running performance in rugby players
- Creatine supplementation and multiple sprint running performance
- The effects of creatine loading on thermoregulation and intermittent sprint exercise performance in a hot humid environment
- Creatine supplementation does not improve sprint performance in competitive swimmers
- Ergolytic/ergogenic effects of creatine on aerobic power
- Creatine supplementation during pulmonary rehabilitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- Randomized controlled trial of dietary creatine as an adjunct therapy to physical training in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- Creatine supplementation for patients with COPD receiving pulmonary rehabilitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol
- Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior
- The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
- Effects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation