Supplement

Cannabis

Cannabis is a plant whose compounds, including THC and CBD, act on the body's endocannabinoid system, which helps regulate pain, appetite and muscle tone. Most people look at it for multiple sclerosis symptoms like spasticity, pain and bladder trouble, where the evidence is moderate, though thinking skills showed mixed results. Beyond MS the evidence is limited, and small trials in cancer-related pain found pain improved.

Sources: PMID 19896326; PMID 23141881

Updated 30 September 2026
How we grade
85 studies cited

Best evidence: Grade B
Conditions studied: 45
Outcomes: 194
Graded outcomes: 03209

Evidence by condition

Strong
Moderate
Limited
Very limited

45 conditions

Respiratory Health

Respiratory Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Heart Rate Moderate Increase	Improves (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect	4 studies	40 people
Studies that measured heart rate Effects of acute marijuana smoking on pulse rate and mood states in womenPsychopharmacology · PMID 6438677 Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucomaOphthalmology · PMID 7053160 Regional cerebral blood flow after marijuana smokingJ Cereb Blood Flow Metab · PMID 1324250 The effects of smoking marihuana on physical performanceMed Sci Sports · PMID 1235156
	Lung Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	32 people
Studies that measured lung function Association between marijuana exposure and pulmonary function over 20 yearsJAMA · PMID 22235088
	Metabolic Rate	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	8 people
Studies that measured metabolic rate The effects of smoked marijuana on metabolism and respiratory controlAm Rev Respir Dis · PMID 367234

Weight Loss & Maintenance

Weight Loss & Maintenance: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Appetite Small Increase	Worsens (the measure goes up)	Small effect	1 study	27 people
Studies that measured appetite Explorative Placebo-Controlled Double-Blind Intervention Study with Low Doses of Inhaled Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol Reveals No Effect on Sweet Taste Intensity Perception and Liking in HumansCannabis Cannabinoid Res · PMID 28861511
	Food Intake	Changes; see studies		2 studies	17 people
Studies that measured food intake Abstinence symptoms following smoked marijuana in humansPsychopharmacology · PMID 10090647 Abstinence symptoms following oral THC administration to humansPsychopharmacology · PMID 10090646
	Ghrelin	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	37 people
Studies that measured ghrelin Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory studyTransl Psychiatry · PMID 32075958 Effect of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on subjective and metabolic hormone responses to food stimuli and food intake in healthy humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr · PMID 30949710
	Leptin	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	20 people
Studies that measured leptin A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult menBrain Res · PMID 22133305
	Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1)	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
	Satiety	Improves (the measure goes up)			10 people

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Cognition
Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

Multiple Sclerosis (MS): outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Cognition Mixed effect				54 people
	Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		20 studies	3,161 people
Studies that measured multiple sclerosis symptoms Assessment of Efficacy and Tolerability of Medicinal Cannabinoids in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisJAMA Netw Open · PMID 30646241 Sativex ® as add-on therapy vs. further optimized first-line ANTispastics (SAVANT) in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised clinical trialInt J Neurosci · PMID 29792372 Sativex(®) and clinical-neurophysiological measures of spasticity in progressive multiple sclerosisJ Neurol · PMID 26289497 Cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis (CAMS) study: safety and efficacy data for 12 months follow upJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry · PMID 16291891 Multiple sclerosis and extract of cannabis: results of the MUSEC trialJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry · PMID 22791906 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of Sativex, in subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosisNeurol Res · PMID 20307378 Do cannabis-based medicinal extracts have general or specific effects on symptoms in multiple sclerosis? A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study on 160 patientsMult Scler · PMID 15327042 Long-term use of a cannabis-based medicine in the treatment of spasticity and other symptoms in multiple sclerosisMult Scler · PMID 17086911 Psychopathological and cognitive effects of therapeutic cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis: a double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover studyClin Neuropharmacol · PMID 18978501 A placebo-controlled, parallel-group, randomized withdrawal study of subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosis who are receiving long-term Sativex® (nabiximols)Mult Scler · PMID 21878454 and 10 more in the citations list
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	900 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210
	Balance Moderate Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect	2 studies	20 people
Studies that measured balance Short-term effects of smoking marijuana on balance in patients with multiple sclerosis and normal volunteersClin Pharmacol Ther · PMID 8143398 The effects of orally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man on mood and performance measures: a dose-response studyPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 2161109
	Urinary Incontinence Signs	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	765 people
Studies that measured urinary incontinence signs The effect of cannabis on urge incontinence in patients with multiple sclerosis: a multicentre, randomised placebo-controlled trial (CAMS-LUTS)Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct · PMID 16552618 Randomized controlled trial of Sativex to treat detrusor overactivity in multiple sclerosisMult Scler · PMID 20829244
	Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	1,132 people
	Motor Speed	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	14 people
	Fatigue Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			1,186 people
	Irritability	Improves (the measure goes down)			1,132 people
	Sleep Duration	Improves (the measure goes up)			160 people
	Walking Ability	Improves (the measure goes up)			81 people

Pain: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

Cancer-Related Pain: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Pain Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	6 studies	39 people
Studies that measured pain An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881 Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132 Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326 Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179 Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554 Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	1,442 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210

General Cancer Care and Prevention

Analgesic Use: improves
Pain: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

General Cancer Care and Prevention: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	1,333 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	1,333 people
Studies that measured pain An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881 Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132 Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326 Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179 Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554 Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	759 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210
	Quality of Life	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	24 people
Studies that measured quality of life The Effects of Dosage-Controlled Cannabis Capsules on Cancer-Related Cachexia and Anorexia Syndrome in Advanced Cancer Patients: Pilot StudyIntegr Cancer Ther · PMID 31595793 Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-GroupJ Clin Oncol · PMID 16849753
	Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	360 people
Studies that measured depression symptoms Evaluating the Suitability and Potential Efficiency of Cannabis sativa Oil for Patients with Primary Burning Mouth Syndrome: A Prospective, Open-Label, Single-Arm Pilot StudyPain Med · PMID 33123730
	Weight	Improves (the measure goes down)			24 people

Pain Relief

Analgesic Use: improves
Pain: improves
Body Temperature: improves

Pain Relief: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	177 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	252 people
Studies that measured pain An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881 Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132 Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326 Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179 Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554 Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
	Body Temperature	Improves (the measure goes up)			18 people

Neuropathic Pain

Analgesic Use: improves
Sleep Quality: improves
Sleep Latency: improves

Neuropathic Pain: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	34 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	394 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210
	Sleep Latency	Improves (the measure goes down)			23 people

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Analgesic Use: improves
Ghrelin: improves
Leptin: improves

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	34 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Ghrelin	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	7 people
Studies that measured ghrelin Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory studyTransl Psychiatry · PMID 32075958 Effect of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on subjective and metabolic hormone responses to food stimuli and food intake in healthy humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr · PMID 30949710
	Leptin	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	7 people
Studies that measured leptin A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult menBrain Res · PMID 22133305
	Lymphocyte Count	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	62 people
Studies that measured lymphocyte count Short-term effects of cannabinoids on immune phenotype and function in HIV-1-infected patientsJ Clin Pharmacol · PMID 12412840
	B Cell Count	Improves (the measure goes up)			62 people
	CD4 Lymphocytes	Improves (the measure goes up)			62 people
	CD8 Lymphocytes	Improves (the measure goes up)			62 people
	Natural Killer Cell Activity	Improves (the measure goes up)			62 people
	Natural Killer Cell Content	Improves (the measure goes up)			62 people
	Peptide YY (PYY)	Improves (the measure goes up)			7 people

Chronic pain

Analgesic Use: improves
Pain: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

Chronic pain: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	399 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	399 people
Studies that measured pain An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881 Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132 Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326 Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179 Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554 Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	399 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210

Opioid-Refractory Pain

Analgesic Use: improves
Pain: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

Opioid-Refractory Pain: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Analgesic Use Small Decrease	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect	4 studies	360 people
Studies that measured analgesic use Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212 Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680 Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408 Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	360 people
Studies that measured pain An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881 Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132 Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326 Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179 Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554 Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	360 people
Studies that measured sleep quality Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962 Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224 Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210
	Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	360 people
Studies that measured depression symptoms Evaluating the Suitability and Potential Efficiency of Cannabis sativa Oil for Patients with Primary Burning Mouth Syndrome: A Prospective, Open-Label, Single-Arm Pilot StudyPain Med · PMID 33123730

Ocular Hypertension

Intraocular Pressure: improves
Visual acuity (VA): improves

Ocular Hypertension: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
	Intraocular Pressure Moderate Improvement	Improves (the measure goes up)	Moderate effect	2 studies	6 people
Studies that measured intraocular pressure Effect of sublingual application of cannabinoids on intraocular pressure: a pilot studyJ Glaucoma · PMID 16988594 Marijuana smoking and reduced pressure in human eyes: drug action or epiphenomenon?Invest Ophthalmol · PMID 1089090
	Visual acuity (VA)	Improves (the measure goes up)			6 people

Metabolic Health

Cortisol
Heart Rate: improves
Ghrelin: improves

Metabolic Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Studies	People
	Cortisol Mixed effect		1 study	12 people
Studies that measured cortisol 1 -tetrahydrocannabinol, synhexyl and marijuana extract administered orally in man: catecholamine excretion, plasma cortisol levels and platelet serotonin contentPsychopharmacologia · PMID 5523370
	Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)	4 studies	8 people
Studies that measured heart rate Effects of acute marijuana smoking on pulse rate and mood states in womenPsychopharmacology · PMID 6438677 Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucomaOphthalmology · PMID 7053160 Regional cerebral blood flow after marijuana smokingJ Cereb Blood Flow Metab · PMID 1324250 The effects of smoking marihuana on physical performanceMed Sci Sports · PMID 1235156
	Ghrelin	Improves (the measure goes up)	2 studies	20 people
Studies that measured ghrelin Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory studyTransl Psychiatry · PMID 32075958 Effect of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on subjective and metabolic hormone responses to food stimuli and food intake in healthy humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr · PMID 30949710
	Leptin	Improves (the measure goes up)	1 study	20 people
Studies that measured leptin A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult menBrain Res · PMID 22133305
	Metabolic Rate	Improves (the measure goes up)	1 study	8 people
Studies that measured metabolic rate The effects of smoked marijuana on metabolism and respiratory controlAm Rev Respir Dis · PMID 367234
	Prolactin	Improves (the measure goes up)	1 study	23 people
	Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1)	Improves (the measure goes up)		20 people

Cachexia

Appetite: improves
Quality of Life: improves
Weight: changes; see studies

Cachexia: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Appetite Small Increase	Improves (the measure goes up)	Small effect	1 study	164 people
Quality of Life	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	188 people
Weight	Changes; see studies			24 people

Neurological Health

Appetite: worsens
Heart Rate: improves
Blood Pressure: improves

Neurological Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Appetite Small Increase	Worsens (the measure goes up)	Small effect	1 study	10 people
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	20 people
Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	20 people
Cerebral Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Satiety	Improves (the measure goes up)			10 people
Stress Signs and Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			20 people

Glaucoma

Blood Pressure
Heart Rate: improves
Intraocular Pressure: improves

Glaucoma: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Studies	People
Blood Pressure Mixed effect		1 study	18 people
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)	4 studies	18 people
Intraocular Pressure	Improves (the measure goes up)	2 studies	18 people

Low Testosterone

Cortisol
Luteinizing Hormone: improves

Low Testosterone: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Cortisol Mixed effect			1 study	40 people
	Luteinizing Hormone	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	40 people

Postural Syncope

Blood Pressure
Heart Rate: improves
Orthostatic Hypotension Symptoms: improves

Postural Syncope: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Studies	People
Blood Pressure Mixed effect		1 study	29 people
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)	4 studies	29 people
Orthostatic Hypotension Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)	1 study	29 people
Cerebral Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)		29 people
Dizziness	Improves (the measure goes up)		29 people

Fibromyalgia

Anxiety Symptoms: improves
Pain: improves
Depression Symptoms: improves

Fibromyalgia: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Anxiety Symptoms Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect		18 people
Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	288 people
Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	18 people
Fibromyalgia Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	43 people
Motor Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	614 people
Myotonia Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	6 people
Subjective Well-Being	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	18 people
Fatigue Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			18 people

Insomnia

Sleep Latency: improves
Sleep Quality: improves

Insomnia: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Sleep Latency Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Small effect		23 people
	Sleep Quality	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	89 people

Marijuana Withdrawal

Cognition
Food Intake: changes; see studies
Tobacco Consumption: improves

Marijuana Withdrawal: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Studies	People
Cognition Mixed effect			24 people
Food Intake	Changes; see studies	2 studies	24 people
Tobacco Consumption	Improves (the measure goes up)	2 studies	12 people
Social Functioning	Improves (the measure goes up)		12 people

Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS)

Burning Mouth Syndrome Symptoms: improves
Mood: improves
Depression Symptoms: improves

Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS): outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Burning Mouth Syndrome Symptoms Moderate Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect		17 people
Mood	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	17 people
Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	17 people

Chemotherapy Side Effects

Nausea Symptoms: improves
Vomiting: improves

Chemotherapy Side Effects: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Nausea Symptoms Moderate Improvement	Improves (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect		81 people
	Vomiting	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	81 people

Mental Resilience

Aggression: improves
Cortisol: improves
Testosterone: improves

Mental Resilience: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Aggression Small Improvement	Improves (the measure goes up)	Small effect		61 people
Cortisol	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	61 people
Testosterone	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	61 people

Type 2 Diabetes

Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms
Pain: improves

Type 2 Diabetes: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms No effect		NoneNo effect	2 studies	46 people
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	30 people

Diabetic Neuropathy

Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms
Pain: improves

Diabetic Neuropathy: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms No effect		NoneNo effect	2 studies	46 people
	Pain	Improves (the measure goes down)		6 studies	30 people

Cognitive Improvement

Attention
Driving Speed: improves
Driving Control: improves

Cognitive Improvement: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Attention No effect		NoneNo effect	1 study	120 people
Driving Speed	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	110 people
Driving Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		3 studies	183 people
Balance	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	80 people
Mood	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	91 people
Cortisol	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	40 people
Motor Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	120 people
Motor Speed	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	40 people
Cognition	Improves (the measure goes up)			108 people
Driving Caution	Improves (the measure goes up)			87 people
Fatigue Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			108 people
Hand-Eye Coordination	Improves (the measure goes up)			80 people
Reaction Time	Improves (the measure goes up)			80 people
Verbal Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			91 people
Working Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			29 people

Mood Improvement

Attention
Heart Rate: improves
Mood: improves

Mood Improvement: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Attention No effect		NoneNo effect	1 study	151 people
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	28 people
Mood	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	151 people
Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	60 people
Motor Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	91 people
Cognition	Improves (the measure goes up)			151 people
Confusion	Improves (the measure goes up)			28 people
Fatigue Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			91 people
Verbal Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			91 people
Working Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			60 people

Focus & Attention

Attention
Memory: improves
Motor Control: improves

Focus & Attention: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Attention No effect		NoneNo effect	1 study	19 people
Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	19 people
Motor Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	19 people
Working Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			19 people

Sleep Health

Attention
Mood: improves
Memory: improves

Sleep Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Attention No effect		NoneNo effect	1 study	8 people
Mood	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	8 people
Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	8 people
Fatigue Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			8 people
Sleep Latency	Improves (the measure goes down)			8 people
Working Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)			8 people

Driving Performance

Driving Caution
Driving Speed: improves
Driving Control: improves

Driving Performance: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Driving Caution No effect		NoneNo effect		147 people
Driving Speed	Improves (the measure goes up)		4 studies	147 people
Driving Control	Improves (the measure goes up)		3 studies	173 people

Crohn's Disease

C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
Hemoglobin: improves
Crohn's Disease Symptoms: improves

Crohn's Disease: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
C-Reactive Protein (CRP) No effect		NoneNo effect		21 people
Hemoglobin	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	21 people
Crohn's Disease Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			21 people
Hematocrit	Improves (the measure goes up)			21 people
White Blood Cell Count	Improves (the measure goes up)			21 people

Tourette Syndrome

ADHD Symptoms
Depression Symptoms: improves
Tourette Syndrome Symptoms: improves

Tourette Syndrome: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
ADHD Symptoms No effect		NoneNo effect		2,067 people
Depression Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	1,708 people
Tourette Syndrome Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	41 people
Anxiety Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			304 people
Schizophrenia symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			2,067 people

General Cardiovascular Health

Heart Rate: improves
Aerobic Exercise Metrics: worsens
Blood Pressure: improves

General Cardiovascular Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	97 people
Aerobic Exercise Metrics Small Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	20 people
Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	50 people
Memory	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	19 people
Orthostatic Hypotension Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	10 people
Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Cerebral Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			30 people
Stress Signs and Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)			20 people

Aerobic Exercise Performance

Heart Rate: improves
Aerobic Exercise Metrics: worsens
Lung Function: improves

Aerobic Exercise Performance: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	32 people
Aerobic Exercise Metrics Small Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	32 people
Lung Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	12 people
Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Oxygen Uptake	Improves (the measure goes up)			12 people
Power Output	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people

General Athletic Performance

Heart Rate: improves
Aerobic Exercise Metrics: worsens
Blood Pressure: improves

General Athletic Performance: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	32 people
Aerobic Exercise Metrics Small Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	32 people
Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	32 people
Lung Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	12 people
Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Oxygen Uptake	Improves (the measure goes up)			12 people
Power Output	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people

Muscle Size Strength

Heart Rate: improves
Aerobic Exercise Metrics: worsens
Blood Pressure: improves

Muscle Size Strength: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	20 people
Aerobic Exercise Metrics Small Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	20 people
Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	20 people
Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Power Output	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people

Stable Angina

Heart Rate: improves
Blood Pressure: improves
Angina: worsens

Stable Angina: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Improves (the measure goes down)		4 studies	10 people
Blood Pressure	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	10 people
Angina Moderate Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Moderate effect		10 people

Muscle Size & Strength

Heart Rate: changes; see studies
Aerobic Exercise Metrics: worsens
Blood Pressure: changes; see studies

Muscle Size & Strength: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People
Heart Rate	Changes; see studies		4 studies	20 people
Aerobic Exercise Metrics Small Detriment	Worsens (the measure goes down)	Small effect	1 study	20 people
Blood Pressure	Changes; see studies		1 study	20 people
Blood Flow	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people
Power Output	Improves (the measure goes up)			20 people

Eye Health

Intraocular Pressure: improves

Eye Health: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Intraocular Pressure	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	15 people

Smoking Behavior

Tobacco Consumption: improves

Smoking Behavior: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Tobacco Consumption	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	9 people

Tobacco Use Disorder

Tobacco Consumption: improves

Tobacco Use Disorder: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Tobacco Consumption	Improves (the measure goes up)		2 studies	8 people

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Lung Function: improves

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Lung Function	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	5,115 people

Menopause

Luteinizing Hormone: improves

Menopause: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Luteinizing Hormone	Improves (the measure goes up)		1 study	10 people

Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease Symptoms: improves

Parkinson's Disease: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Parkinson's Disease Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	19 people

Sickle Cell Disease

Sickle Cell Symptoms: improves

Sickle Cell Disease: outcomes studied for Cannabis
Grade	Outcome	Effect	Size	Studies	People	Studies list
	Sickle Cell Symptoms	Improves (the measure goes down)		1 study	27 people

Key findings

Heart RateRespiratory HealthImproves (the measure goes down)
AppetiteWeight Loss & MaintenanceWorsens (the measure goes up)
CognitionMultiple Sclerosis (MS)

Shop the evidence-backed picks

Third-party tested Cannabis products, in the forms the graded studies used where we can match them.

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Studies cited

85 studies from PubMed

Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory studyTransl Psychiatry · PMID 32075958
1 -tetrahydrocannabinol, synhexyl and marijuana extract administered orally in man: catecholamine excretion, plasma cortisol levels and platelet serotonin contentPsychopharmacologia · PMID 5523370
Acute effects of natural and synthetic cannabis compounds on prolactin levels in human malesPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 6320226
The effects of smoked marijuana on metabolism and respiratory controlAm Rev Respir Dis · PMID 367234
Effect of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on subjective and metabolic hormone responses to food stimuli and food intake in healthy humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr · PMID 30949710
Explorative Placebo-Controlled Double-Blind Intervention Study with Low Doses of Inhaled Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol Reveals No Effect on Sweet Taste Intensity Perception and Liking in HumansCannabis Cannabinoid Res · PMID 28861511
Short-term effects of cannabinoids on immune phenotype and function in HIV-1-infected patientsJ Clin Pharmacol · PMID 12412840
A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult menBrain Res · PMID 22133305
Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 18688212
Acute and residual mood and cognitive performance of young adults following smoked cannabisPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 32360692
Effects of acute marijuana smoking on pulse rate and mood states in womenPsychopharmacology · PMID 6438677
Assessment of Efficacy and Tolerability of Medicinal Cannabinoids in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisJAMA Netw Open · PMID 30646241
Sativex ® as add-on therapy vs. further optimized first-line ANTispastics (SAVANT) in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised clinical trialInt J Neurosci · PMID 29792372
Sativex(®) and clinical-neurophysiological measures of spasticity in progressive multiple sclerosisJ Neurol · PMID 26289497
Cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis (CAMS) study: safety and efficacy data for 12 months follow upJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry · PMID 16291891
Multiple sclerosis and extract of cannabis: results of the MUSEC trialJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry · PMID 22791906
A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of Sativex, in subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosisNeurol Res · PMID 20307378
Do cannabis-based medicinal extracts have general or specific effects on symptoms in multiple sclerosis? A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study on 160 patientsMult Scler · PMID 15327042
Long-term use of a cannabis-based medicine in the treatment of spasticity and other symptoms in multiple sclerosisMult Scler · PMID 17086911
Psychopathological and cognitive effects of therapeutic cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis: a double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover studyClin Neuropharmacol · PMID 18978501
A placebo-controlled, parallel-group, randomized withdrawal study of subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosis who are receiving long-term Sativex® (nabiximols)Mult Scler · PMID 21878454
Sativex long-term use: an open-label trial in patients with spasticity due to multiple sclerosisJ Neurol · PMID 22878432
Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trialLancet · PMID 14615106
A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of THC/CBD oromucosal spray in combination with the existing treatment regimen, in the relief of central neuropathic pain in patients with multiple sclerosisJ Neurol · PMID 23180178
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, enriched-design study of nabiximols* (Sativex(®) ), as add-on therapy, in subjects with refractory spasticity caused by multiple sclerosisEur J Neurol · PMID 21362108
Tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol oromucosal spray in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: consistency of response across subgroups from the SAVANT randomized clinical trialInt J Neurosci · PMID 32065006
Randomized, controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in central pain in multiple sclerosisNeurology · PMID 16186518
Efficacy, safety and tolerability of an orally administered cannabis extract in the treatment of spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover studyMult Scler · PMID 15327040
Short-term effects of smoking marijuana on balance in patients with multiple sclerosis and normal volunteersClin Pharmacol Ther · PMID 8143398
The effect of cannabis on urge incontinence in patients with multiple sclerosis: a multicentre, randomised placebo-controlled trial (CAMS-LUTS)Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct · PMID 16552618
Randomized controlled trial of Sativex to treat detrusor overactivity in multiple sclerosisMult Scler · PMID 20829244
Smoked marijuana effects on tobacco cigarette smoking behaviorJ Pharmacol Exp Ther · PMID 2319477
Abstinence symptoms following smoked marijuana in humansPsychopharmacology · PMID 10090647
Abstinence symptoms following oral THC administration to humansPsychopharmacology · PMID 10090646
Cannabidiol (CBD) content in vaporized cannabis does not prevent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced impairment of driving and cognitionPsychopharmacology · PMID 31044290
Acute and residual effects of smoked cannabis: Impact on driving speed and lateral control, heart rate, and self-reported drug effectsDrug Alcohol Depend · PMID 31678833
Effect of cannabis use on cognitive functions and driving abilityJ Clin Psychiatry · PMID 10401919
Cannabis smoking impairs driving performance on the simulator and real driving: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trialFundam Clin Pharmacol · PMID 29752828
Acute effects of smoking marijuana on hormones, subjective effects and performance in male human subjectsPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 3016764
The effects of orally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man on mood and performance measures: a dose-response studyPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 2161109
Opioid antagonism enhances marijuana's effects in heavy marijuana smokersPsychopharmacology · PMID 20490465
Cannabis use and driving-related performance in young recreational users: a within-subject randomized clinical trialCMAJ Open · PMID 30323055
Sex differences in the effects of marijuana on simulated driving performanceJ Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 20464803
Effect of Cannabidiol and Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on Driving Performance: A Randomized Clinical TrialJAMA · PMID 33258890
Subjective aggression during alcohol and cannabis intoxication before and after aggression exposurePsychopharmacology · PMID 27422568
Cannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care · PMID 31959586
An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 23141881
Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology · PMID 23609132
Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 19896326
Lack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18580179
Dose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology · PMID 18073554
Amygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain · PMID 23273106
Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain · PMID 22483680
Sativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain · PMID 28785408
Results of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage · PMID 28923526
The Effects of Dosage-Controlled Cannabis Capsules on Cancer-Related Cachexia and Anorexia Syndrome in Advanced Cancer Patients: Pilot StudyIntegr Cancer Ther · PMID 31595793
Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucomaOphthalmology · PMID 7053160
Cannabis for dyskinesia in Parkinson disease: a randomized double-blind crossover studyNeurology · PMID 15477546
Regional cerebral blood flow after marijuana smokingJ Cereb Blood Flow Metab · PMID 1324250
The effects of smoking marihuana on physical performanceMed Sci Sports · PMID 1235156
Marijuana's dose-dependent effects in daily marijuana smokersExp Clin Psychopharmacol · PMID 23937597
Middle cerebral artery velocity during upright posture after marijuana smokingActa Psychiatr Scand · PMID 1529742
Association between marijuana exposure and pulmonary function over 20 yearsJAMA · PMID 22235088
Acute effects of marihuana smoking on maximal exercise performanceMed Sci Sports Exerc · PMID 3097453
Cannabis induces a clinical response in patients with Crohn's disease: a prospective placebo-controlled studyClin Gastroenterol Hepatol · PMID 23648372
Effect of Inhaled Cannabis for Pain in Adults With Sickle Cell Disease: A Randomized Clinical TrialJAMA Netw Open · PMID 32678452
Effect of sublingual application of cannabinoids on intraocular pressure: a pilot studyJ Glaucoma · PMID 16988594
Efficacy of Inhaled Cannabis on Painful Diabetic NeuropathyJ Pain · PMID 25843054
Randomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial of cannabis-based medicinal product (Sativex) in painful diabetic neuropathy: depression is a major confounding factorDiabetes Care · PMID 19808912
Postural syncope after marijuana: a transcranial Doppler study of the hemodynamicsPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 12873621
A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain · PMID 24420962
Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain · PMID 17997224
Smoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ · PMID 20805210
Ingestion of a THC-Rich Cannabis Oil in People with Fibromyalgia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical TrialPain Med · PMID 33118602
Systematic review and meta-analysis of cannabis treatment for chronic painPain Med · PMID 19732371
A role for cannabinoids in the treatment of myotonia? Report of compassionate use in a small cohort of patientsJ Neurol · PMID 31655890
An experimental randomized study on the analgesic effects of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis in chronic pain patients with fibromyalgiaPain · PMID 30585986
Oral THC:CBD cannabis extract for refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase II crossover trialAnn Oncol · PMID 32801017
Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysisLancet Psychiatry · PMID 31672337
Acute effects of marihuana on luteinizing hormone in menopausal womenPharmacol Biochem Behav · PMID 3001780
Effect of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on nocturnal sleep and early-morning behavior in young adultsJ Clin Psychopharmacol · PMID 15118485
Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-GroupJ Clin Oncol · PMID 16849753
Evaluating the Suitability and Potential Efficiency of Cannabis sativa Oil for Patients with Primary Burning Mouth Syndrome: A Prospective, Open-Label, Single-Arm Pilot StudyPain Med · PMID 33123730
Marijuana smoking and reduced pressure in human eyes: drug action or epiphenomenon?Invest Ophthalmol · PMID 1089090
Impact of smoked cannabis on tobacco cigarette smoking intensity and subjective effects: A placebo-controlled, double-blind, within-subjects human laboratory studyExp Clin Psychopharmacol · PMID 32463281