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Peptide

Glucagon (GlucaGen/Gvoke/Baqsimi)

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid peptide hormone. FDA-approved in 1998 for severe hypoglycemia emergency treatment. Phase 3 trials show 99-100% treatment success. Median time to glucose recovery 10-13 minutes. Available as injectable kit, autoinjector (Gvoke), and nasal powder (Baqsimi). Approved for ages ≥2 years (injectable) and ≥4 years (nasal).

Research notice. This page is for education and research. Peptides may not be FDA-approved for human use and may only be legally available for research. Talk to a qualified clinician before considering any peptide.

Best evidence
Grade A
Conditions studied
1
Outcomes
10
Graded outcomes
4132

Evidence by condition

  • Strong
  • Moderate
  • Limited
  • Very limited

1 condition, plus general outcomes

Severe Hypoglycemia

Severe Hypoglycemia: outcomes studied for Glucagon (GlucaGen/Gvoke/Baqsimi)
GradeOutcomeEffectSizeStudiesPeopleStudies list
Glucose Recovery

99-100% achieve glucose >70 mg/dL within 30 min. Median time 10-13 min. Non-inferior across all delivery methods (IM, SC, nasal).

Improves (the measure goes up)Large effect16 studies

Studies that measured glucose recovery

and 6 more in the citations list

Time to Recovery

Median 10-12 min to plasma glucose recovery. Dasiglucagon: 65% recover within 10 min. Nasal: 11-16 min mean time to success.

Improves (the measure goes down)Large effect7 studies

Studies that measured time to recovery

Symptom Relief

Rapid resolution of neuroglycopenic symptoms. Return of consciousness within 15-20 minutes in most patients.

Changes; see studiesLarge effect7 studies

Studies that measured symptom relief

Treatment Success Rate

Phase 3: 100% success in children, 99% in adults. Autoinjector non-inferior to emergency kit. Nasal non-inferior to IM injection.

Improves (the measure goes up)Large effect7 studies

Studies that measured treatment success rate

General

General: outcomes studied for Glucagon (GlucaGen/Gvoke/Baqsimi)
GradeOutcomeEffectSizeStudiesPeopleStudies list
Blood Glucose Control

30 human trials and systematic reviews support this finding. Evidence includes systematic reviews/meta-analyses. Human clinical trial data available.

Improves (the measure goes down)Moderate effect16 studies

Studies that measured blood glucose control

and 6 more in the citations list

Liver Protection

14 preclinical studies support this finding. Primarily preclinical evidence.

Improves (the measure goes up)Moderate effect15 studies

Studies that measured liver protection

and 5 more in the citations list

Lipid Profile

4 preclinical studies support this finding. Primarily preclinical evidence.

Improves (the measure goes down)Small effect9 studies

Studies that measured lipid profile

Body Weight

3 preclinical studies support this finding. Primarily preclinical evidence.

Improves (the measure goes down)Small effect8 studies

Studies that measured body weight

Kidney Function

2 preclinical studies support this finding. Primarily preclinical evidence.

Improves (the measure goes up)Small effect7 studies

Studies that measured kidney function

Immune Function

2 preclinical studies support this finding. Primarily preclinical evidence.

Improves (the measure goes up)Small effect6 studies

Key findings

  • Glucose RecoverySevere HypoglycemiaImproves (the measure goes up)
  • Time to RecoverySevere HypoglycemiaImproves (the measure goes down)
  • Symptom ReliefSevere HypoglycemiaChanges; see studies

Studies cited

42 studies from PubMed

  1. Shared mechanistic pathways of glucagon signalling: Unlocking its potential for treating obesity, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, and other cardio-kidney-metabolic conditions.Diabetes, obesity & metabolism, 2025 · PMID 41025406
  2. Glucagon in metabolic disease: a mini-review of emerging multi-organ roles beyond glycemic control.Frontiers in endocrinology, 2025 · PMID 40822953
  3. Low-Dose Glucagon to Prevent and Treat Exercise-Associated Hypoglycemia in Individuals With Type 1 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.Diabetes care, 2025 · PMID 40834249
  4. Variable glucagon metabolic actions in diverse mouse models of obesity and type 2 diabetes.Molecular metabolism, 2024 · PMID 39536823
  5. GlucagonStatPearls, 2023 · PMID 29939616
  6. A physiologic increase in brain glucagon action alters the hepatic gluconeogenic/glycogenolytic ratio but not glucagon's overall effect on glucose production.American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism, 2023 · PMID 36652399
  7. Comparison of a ready-to-use liquid glucagon injection administered by autoinjector to glucagon emergency kit for the symptomatic relief of severe hypoglycemia: two randomized crossover non-inferiority studiesJ Diabetes Sci Technol, 2022 · PMID 34620618
  8. Dasiglucagon Effectively Mitigates Postbariatric Postprandial Hypoglycemia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover TrialDiabetes Care, 2022 · PMID 35320361
  9. Regulation of Hepatic Lipid and Glucose Metabolism by INSP3R1.Diabetes, 2022 · PMID 35657697
  10. Glucagon receptor antagonism impairs and glucagon receptor agonism enhances triglycerides metabolism in mice.Molecular metabolism, 2022 · PMID 36400402
  11. Glucagon, cyclic AMP, and hepatic glucose mobilization: A half-century of uncertainty.Physiological reports, 2022 · PMID 35569125
  12. The Liver-α-Cell Axis in Health and in Disease.Diabetes, 2022 · PMID 35657688
  13. Scientific and Regulatory Considerations for the Approval of the First Generic GlucagonClin Pharmacol Ther, 2021 · PMID 33683941
  14. Glucagon receptor signaling regulates weight loss via central KLB receptor complexes.JCI insight, 2021 · PMID 33411693
  15. Efficacy and Usability of Intranasal Glucagon for the Management of Hypoglycemia in Patients With Diabetes: A Systematic ReviewDiabetes Ther, 2020 · PMID 32873417
  16. Treatment and prevention of severe hypoglycaemia in people with diabetes: Current and new formulations of glucagonDiabetes Obes Metab, 2020 · PMID 31901809
  17. Glucagon Resistance at the Level of Amino Acid Turnover in Obese Subjects With Hepatic Steatosis.Diabetes, 2020 · PMID 31974144
  18. The kinetics of glucagon action on the liver during insulin-induced hypoglycemia.American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism, 2020 · PMID 32208001
  19. Glucagon nasal powder: A promising alternative to intramuscular glucagon in youth with type 1 diabetesDiabetes Care, 2019 · PMID 30723301
  20. Hepatic Glucagon Signaling Regulates PCSK9 and Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol.Circulation research, 2019 · PMID 30582457
  21. The Liver-α-Cell Axis and Type 2 Diabetes.Endocrine reviews, 2019 · PMID 30920583
  22. Human Factors Usability and Validation Studies of a Glucagon Autoinjector in a Simulated Severe Hypoglycemia Rescue Situation.Diabetes technology & therapeutics, 2019 · PMID 31219349
  23. Glucagon nasal powder (Baqsimi) for severe hypoglycemia.The Medical letter on drugs and therapeutics, 2019 · PMID 31599866
  24. Insulin Secretion Depends on Intra-islet Glucagon Signaling.Cell reports, 2018 · PMID 30380405
  25. Hemodynamic Effects of Glucagon: A Literature Review.The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 2018 · PMID 29546411
  26. Glucagon's effect on liver protein metabolism in vivo.American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism, 2017 · PMID 28536182
  27. Intranasal Glucagon for Treatment of Insulin-Induced Hypoglycemia in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes: A Randomized Crossover Noninferiority StudyDiabetes Care, 2016 · PMID 26666634
  28. THE ROLE OF GLUCAGON IN THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF DIABETES.Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, 2016 · PMID 26866706
  29. Comparative Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Study of Liquid Stable Glucagon Versus Lyophilized Glucagon in Type 1 Diabetes Subjects.Journal of diabetes science and technology, 2016 · PMID 27325390
  30. A glucagon analog chemically stabilized for immediate treatment of life-threatening hypoglycemiaMol Metab, 2014 · PMID 24692085
  31. Treatment of severe diabetic hypoglycemia with glucagon: an underutilized therapeutic approachDiabetes Metab Syndr Obes, 2011 · PMID 21750519
  32. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of native glucagon and glucagon analog (MAR-D28) during aging: lack of cytotoxicity and preservation of hyperglycemic effect.Journal of diabetes science and technology, 2010 · PMID 21129325
  33. Glucagon: the effects of its excess and deficiency on insulin action.Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases : NMCD, 2006 · PMID 16530126
  34. Glucagon as a target for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes.Expert opinion on therapeutic targets, 2005 · PMID 15948676
  35. Secretin, glucagon, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, parathyroid hormone, and related peptides in the regulation of the hypothalamus- pituitary-adrenal axis.Peptides, 2000 · PMID 10764961
  36. A review of potential cardiovascular uses of intravenous glucagon administration.Journal of clinical pharmacology, 1999 · PMID 10234590
  37. The role of glucagon in the regulation of plasma lipids.Metabolism: clinical and experimental, 1979 · PMID 378241
  38. Glucagon and diabetes: a reappraisal.Diabetologia, 1979 · PMID 381082
  39. Glucagon and the pancreas, liver and bile ducts.South African journal of surgery. Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir chirurgie, 1974 · PMID 4614472
  40. Radioimmunoassay of glucagon.Metabolism: clinical and experimental, 1973 · PMID 4581038
  41. [Glucagon (literature review)].Problemy endokrinologii, 1968 · PMID 4900870
  42. Glucagon--a review.The Journal of the Florida Medical Association, 1968 · PMID 5638895